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A dimensionless analysis to select directed energy deposition process parameters for proper clad formation

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Abstract

The growing interest in the directed energy deposition process to fabricate and repair thin wall structures has warranted a deeper understanding in the properties of the method’s basic building block: clad formation. In this study, clads obtained by depositing stainless steel 316L (SS316L) powder with three different process parameters, namely laser power, laser traverse speed, and powder mass flow rate, were investigated. Repeatability was ensured through a wide sample range per parameter. From the data measurement, the clads have an average hardness close to the typical 200 Hv of SS316L materials, indicating that Hall-Petch effect is dominant. The study also shows that: (i) Laser power is the most significant factor to clad depth, but has little influence on clad thickness. (ii) Laser traverse speed is the dominant parameter to clad height. (iii) Powder mass flow rate tends to compensate depth reduction with thickness gain, resulting in no noticeable effect on clad height. Increasing laser power was observed to be the most effective way to prevent clads from forming with zero dilution, an indicator to how well the printed clad is bonded to the substrate. A dimensionless analysis was derived from the set of SS316L clads. Through validation with different stainless steel datasets and extrapolation to a larger parametric range, the analysis was demonstrated to be able to facilitate the selection of process parameters to meet given requirements on the clad dimensions. As its application is intuitive, the analysis has the potential to be adopted as a standard preprinting tool that will increase success rate, thus improving the manufacturing turnaround time.

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Data Availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available from Wai Lee Chan upon reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

This research is supported by the National Research Foundation, Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore, under its Medium Sized Centre funding scheme. The authors acknowledge supports from the School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering and Singapore Centre for 3D Printing (SC3DP), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, and the National Additive Manufacturing Innovation Cluster (NAMIC), Singapore.

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    Authors and Affiliations

    1. School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Singapore Center for 3D Printing, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 50 Nanyang Avenue, S(639798), Singapore, Singapore

      Choon Wee Joel Lim & Wai Lee Chan

    2. National Additive Manufacturing Innovation Cluster, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 50 Nanyang Avenue, S(639798), Singapore, Singapore

      Choon Wee Joel Lim

    3. College of Aerospace Engineering, Chongqing University, 174 Shazhengjie, Shapingba, Chongqing, 400044, China

      Yanmei Zhang

    4. School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 50 Nanyang Avenue, S(639798), Singapore, Singapore

      Sheng Huang

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    Contributions

    Conceptualization, experimental investigation, and data collection were performed by Choon Wee Joel Lim. Development of methodology, validation, and data analysis and visualization were conducted by Choon Wee Joel Lim and Wai Lee Chan. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Choon Wee Joel Lim. All authors contributed to reviewing and editing of the subsequent versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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    Correspondence to Wai Lee Chan.

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    The original online version of this article was revised: Article footnote has been revised.

    Choon Wee Joel Lim and Wai Lee Chan contributed equally to this work. Choon Wee Joel Lim is currently a senior lead research engineer at Singapore Polytechnic, Department for Technology, Innovation & Enterprise.

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    Lim, C.W.J., Zhang, Y., Huang, S. et al. A dimensionless analysis to select directed energy deposition process parameters for proper clad formation. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 125, 947–963 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-022-10393-y

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