Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Combined effect of powder properties and process parameters on the density of 316L stainless steel obtained by laser powder bed fusion

  • ORIGINAL ARTICLE
  • Published:
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) process is capable of producing nearly dense 316L stainless steel (SS) parts with a choice of suitable process parameters. These parameters are generally selected from an empirical process mapping involving the input variables of the process (laser power, scan velocity, layer thickness …), independently of the powder characteristics. However, the powder properties (i.e., size, morphology, flowability…) affect the complex physical phenomena involved in the LPBF process. This paper investigates the combined effect of powder properties and process parameters on the LPBF parts density. Firstly, the flowability, relative density, particle size distribution, and absorptance of several powders were measured. Then, these powders were used to produce samples with different process parameters, mainly laser power, scan velocity, and layer thickness. Additionally, computed micro-tomography scanning (µCT) and microscopic analysis methods were used to determine the porosity of the as-built samples and characterize the defects' sizes, types, and locations. The powder size was found to influence the lack of fusion and keyhole boundaries in the process map and consequently affect the operating window. The standard powders with the highest relative density and good flowability were characterized by larger operating windows compared to finer and coarser counterparts. Finally, predictive models were suggested to estimate the porosity of LPBF 316L stainless steel (316L SS) parts by taking into account the powder properties.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Fig. 14
Fig. 15
Fig. 16
Fig. 17
Fig. 18

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

Not applicable.

Code availability

Not applicable.

References

  1. Fotovvati B, Balasubramanian M, Asadi E (2020) Modeling and optimization approaches of laser-based powder-bed fusion process for Ti-6Al-4V alloy. Coatings 10:(1104). https://doi.org/10.3390/COATINGS10111104

  2. Soni H, Gor M, Singh Rajput G, Sahlot P (2021) A comprehensive review on effect of process parameters and heat treatment on tensile strength of additively manufactured Inconel-625. In: Materials Today: Proceedings. Elsevier, pp 4866–4871

  3. Miranda G, Faria S, Bartolomeu F et al (2016) Predictive models for physical and mechanical properties of 316L stainless steel produced by selective laser melting. Mater Sci Eng A 657:43–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2016.01.028

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Hussein A, Hao L, Yan C, Everson R (2013) Finite element simulation of the temperature and stress fields in single layers built without-support in selective laser melting. Mater Des 52:638–647. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2013.05.070

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Clymer DR, Cagan J, Beuth J (2017) Power-velocity process design charts for powder bed additive manufacturing. J Mech Des Trans ASME 139:100907. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4037302

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Leicht A, Fischer M, Klement U et al (2021) Increasing the Productivity of Laser Powder Bed Fusion for Stainless Steel 316L through Increased Layer Thickness. J Mater Eng Perform 30:575–584. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-020-05334-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Wang S, Liu Y, Shi W et al (2017) Research on high layer thickness fabricated of 316L by selective laser melting. Materials (Basel) 10:1055. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma10091055

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Nguyen QB, Luu DN, Nai SML et al (2018) The role of powder layer thickness on the quality of SLM printed parts. Arch Civ Mech Eng 18:948–955. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acme.2018.01.015

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. DebRoy T, Wei HL, Zuback JS et al (2018) Additive manufacturing of metallic components – Process, structure and properties. Prog Mater Sci 92:112–224

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Abele E, Stoffregen HA, Kniepkamp M et al (2015) Selective laser melting for manufacturing of thin-walled porous elements. J Mater Process Technol 215:114–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2014.07.017

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Liu B, Wildman R, Tuck C et al (2011) Investigaztion the effect of particle size distribution on processing parameters optimisation in selective laser melting process. In: 22nd Annual International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium - An Add Manufact Conf SFF. 227–238

  12. Yadroitsev I, Smurov I (2010) Selective laser melting technology: From the single laser melted track stability to 3D parts of complex shape. In: Physics Procedia. Elsevier B.V., pp 551–560

  13. Yadroitsev I, Yadroitsava I, Bertrand P, Smurov I (2012) Factor analysis of selective laser melting process parameters and geometrical characteristics of synthesized single tracks. Rapid Prototyp J 18:201–208. https://doi.org/10.1108/13552541211218117

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Scipioni Bertoli U, Wolfer AJ, Matthews MJ et al (2017) On the limitations of Volumetric Energy Density as a design parameter for Selective Laser Melting. Mater Des 113:331–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2016.10.037

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Sutton AT, Kriewall CS, Leu MC, Newkirk JW (2017) Powder characterisation techniques and effects of powder characteristics on part properties in powder-bed fusion processes. Virtual Phys Prototyp 12:3–29

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Gürtler FJ, Karg M, Dobler M et al (2014) Influence of powder distribution on process stability in laser beam melting: Analysis of melt pool dynamics by numerical simulations. In: 25th Annual International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium. An Add Manufac Conf SFF 1099–1117

  17. Mussatto A, Groarke R, O’Neill A et al (2021) Influences of powder morphology and spreading parameters on the powder bed topography uniformity in powder bed fusion metal additive manufacturing. Addit Manuf 38:101807. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.101807

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Guo Q, Zhao C, Escano LI et al (2018) Transient dynamics of powder spattering in laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing process revealed by in-situ high-speed high-energy x-ray imaging. Acta Mater 151:169–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2018.03.036

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Lane B, Moylan S, Whitenton EP, Ma L (2016) Thermographic measurements of the commercial laser powder bed fusion process at NIST. In: Rap Prototyp J Emerald Group Publishing Ltd., pp 778–787

  20. Donadello S, Motta M, Demir AG, Previtali B (2019) Monitoring of laser metal deposition height by means of coaxial laser triangulation. Opt Lasers Eng 112:136–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlaseng.2018.09.012

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Ahmed Obeidi M, Mussatto A, Groarke R et al (2020) Comprehensive assessment of spatter material generated during selective laser melting of stainless steel. Mater Today Commun 25:101294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2020.101294

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Khairallah SA, Anderson AT, Rubenchik AM, King WE (2017) Laser powder-bed fusion additive manufacturing: Physics of complex melt flow and formation mechanisms of pores, spatter, and denudation zones. In: Additive Manufacturing Handbook: Product Development for the Defense Industry. CRC Press, pp 613–628

  23. Boley CD, Khairallah SA, Rubenchik AM (2015) Calculation of laser absorption by metal powders in additive manufacturing. Appl Opt 54:2477. https://doi.org/10.1364/ao.54.002477

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Gusarov A V, Smurov I (2010) Modeling the interaction of laser radiation with powder bed at selective laser melting. In: Physics Procedia. Elsevier B.V., pp 81–394

  25. Balbaa MA, Ghasemi A, Fereiduni E et al (2021) Role of powder particle size on laser powder bed fusion processability of AlSi10mg alloy. Addit Manuf 37:101630. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.101630

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Brika SE, Letenneur M, Dion CA, Brailovski V (2020) Influence of particle morphology and size distribution on the powder flowability and laser powder bed fusion manufacturability of Ti-6Al-4V alloy. Addit Manuf 31:100929. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2019.100929

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Mukherjee T, Wei HL, De A, DebRoy T (2018) Heat and fluid flow in additive manufacturing – Part II: Powder bed fusion of stainless steel, and titanium, nickel and aluminum base alloys. Comput Mater Sci 150:369–380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.commatsci.2018.04.027

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Spierings AB, Levy G (2009) Comparison of density of stainless steel 316L parts produced with Selective Laser Melting using different powder grades. In: 20th Annual International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium, SFF, pp 342–353

  29. Schneider CA, Rasband WS, Eliceiri KW (2012) NIH Image to ImageJ: 25 years of image analysis. Nat Methods 9:671–675

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Bolte S, Cordelières FP (2006) A guided tour into subcellular colocalization analysis in light microscopy. J Microsc 224:213–232

    Article  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  31. Ahrens J, Geveci B, Law C (2005) ParaView: An end-user tool for large-data visualization. In: Visualization Handbook. Elsevier, pp 717–731

  32. Gu H, Gong H, Pal D et al (2013) Influences of energy density on porosity and microstructure of selective laser melted 17–4PH stainless steel. In: 24th International SFF Symposium - An Additive Manufacturing Conference, SFF 2013, pp 474–489

  33. Gordon JV, Narra SP, Cunningham RW et al (2020) Defect structure process maps for laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing. Addit Manuf 36:101552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.101552

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Thijs L, Verhaeghe F, Craeghs T et al (2010) A study of the microstructural evolution during selective laser melting of Ti-6Al-4V. Acta Mater 58:3303–3312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2010.02.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Kamath C, El-Dasher B, Gallegos GF et al (2014) Density of additively-manufactured, 316L SS parts using laser powder-bed fusion at powers up to 400 W. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 74:65–78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-014-5954-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Yakout M, Elbestawi MA, Veldhuis SC (2019) Density and mechanical properties in selective laser melting of Invar 36 and stainless steel 316L. J Mater Process Technol 266:397–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2018.11.006

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Rehme O, Emmelmann C, Lasertechnik WG, fur, (2005) Reproducibility for properties of selective laser melting products. AT-Verlag, Stuttgart

    Google Scholar 

  38. Thomas M, Baxter GJ, Todd I (2016) Normalised model-based processing diagrams for additive layer manufacture of engineering alloys. Acta Mater 108:26–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2016.02.025

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Chen X, Wang D, Jiang T, Xiao H (2020) Realtime Control-oriented Modeling and Disturbance Parameterization for Smart and Reliable Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing. In: Solid Freeform Fabrication 2018: Proceedings of the 29th Annual International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium - An Additive Manufacturing Conference SFF, pp 2335–2348

  40. Li Z, Voisin T, McKeown JT et al (2019) Tensile properties, strain rate sensitivity, and activation volume of additively manufactured 316L stainless steels. Int J Plast 120:395–410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijplas.2019.05.009

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Meier C, Weissbach R, Weinberg J et al (2019) Critical influences of particle size and adhesion on the powder layer uniformity in metal additive manufacturing. J Mater Process Technol 266:484–501. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2018.10.037

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Spierings AB, Voegtlin M, Bauer T, Wegener K (2016) Powder flowability characterisation methodology for powder-bed-based metal additive manufacturing. Prog Addit Manuf 1:9–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40964-015-0001-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. King WE, Barth HD, Castillo VM et al (2014) Observation of keyhole-mode laser melting in laser powder-bed fusion additive manufacturing. J Mater Process Technol 214:2915–2925. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2014.06.005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Gan Z, Kafka OL, Parab N et al (2021) Universal scaling laws of keyhole stability and porosity in 3D printing of metals. Nat Commun 12:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-22704-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Elmer JW (1988) The influence of cooling rate on the microstructure of Stainless steel alloys. Massachusetts Institute Tech

  46. Fotovvati B, Wayne SF, Lewis G, Asadi E (2018) A Review on Melt-Pool Characteristics in Laser Welding of Metals. Adv Mater Sci Eng. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/4920718

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Scipioni Bertoli U, Guss G, Wu S et al (2017) In-situ characterization of laser-powder interaction and cooling rates through high-speed imaging of powder bed fusion additive manufacturing. Mater Des 135:385–396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2017.09.044

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Obidigbo C, Tatman EP, Gockel J (2019) Processing parameter and transient effects on melt pool geometry in additive manufacturing of Invar 36. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 104:3139–3146. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-019-04229-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Team J (2020) JASP (Version 0.14.1) [Computer software]

  50. Cherry JA, Davies HM, Mehmood S et al (2015) Investigation into the effect of process parameters on microstructural and physical properties of 316L stainless steel parts by selective laser melting. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 76:869–879. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-014-6297-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

This research was supported by a PhD fellowship from ISAE-SUPAERO and Doctoral School 467 Aeronautics and Astronautics (ED-AA).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institut Clément Ader (ICA), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, IMT Mines Albi, INSA, ISAE-SUPAERO, UPS, 3 rue Caroline Aigle, 31400, Toulouse, France

    Sabrine Ziri, Anis Hor & Catherine Mabru

Authors
  1. Sabrine Ziri
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Anis Hor
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Catherine Mabru
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

All authors contributed to the study conception and design. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Sabrine Ziri and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Sabrine ZIRI: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing-Original Draft, Vizualization. Anis Hor: Writing–Review & Editing, Methodology, Investigation, Supervision. Catherine Mabru: Writing–Review & Editing, Methodology, Formal analysis, Supervision.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sabrine Ziri.

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval

The authors affirm that the results are presented without fabrication and ensure that all the authors mentioned in the manuscript have agreed for authorship, read and approved the manuscript, and gave consent for submission.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Ziri, S., Hor, A. & Mabru, C. Combined effect of powder properties and process parameters on the density of 316L stainless steel obtained by laser powder bed fusion. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 120, 6187–6204 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-022-09160-w

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-022-09160-w

Keywords

Search

Navigation