Abstract
A computer-based age estimation is a technique that predicts an individual's age based on visual traits derived by analyzing a 2D picture of the individual's face. Age estimation is critical for access control, e-government, and effective human–computer interaction. The other-race effect has the potential to cause techniques designed for white faces to underperform when used in a region with black faces. The outcome is the consequence of intermittent training with faces of the same race and the encoding structure of the trained face images, which is based on the feature extraction technique used. This study contributes to a constructive comparison of three feature-extraction techniques, namely, local binary pattern (LBP), Gabor Wavelet (GW), and wavelet transformation, used in the development of a genetic algorithm (GA)-artificial neural network (ANN)-based age estimation system. The feature extraction techniques used are proven to produce a wealth of shape and textural information. The GA-ANN constitutes the age classifier module. The correct classification rate was chosen as the performance metrics in this study. The results demonstrated that the LBP is a more robust representation of the black face than the GW and Wavelet transformations, as evidenced by its accuracy rate of 91.76 compared to 89.41 and 84.71 achieved with the GW and Wavelet transformation age estimation systems, respectively.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of data and materials
Not applicable.
Code availability
Not applicable.
References
Adeloye D, Thompson JY, Akanbi MA, Azuh D, Samuel V, Omoregbe N, Ayo CK (2016) The burden of road traffic crashes, injuries and deaths in Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Bull World Health Organ 94(7):510
Angulu R, Tapamo JR, Adewumi AO (2018a) Age estimation with local ternary directional patterns. Image Video Technol. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75786-5_34
Angulu R, Tapamo JR, Adewumi AO (2018b) Age-group estimation using feature and decision level fusion. Comput J 62(3):346–358. https://doi.org/10.1093/comjnl/bxy050
Babatunde RS, Olabiyisi SO, Omidiora EO, Ganiyu RA (2014) Feature dimensionality reduction using a dual level metaheuristic algorithm. Int J Appl Inf Syst 7(1):49–52. https://doi.org/10.5120/ijais14-451134
Brown TI, Uncapher MR, Chow TE, Eberhardt JL, Wagner AD (2017) Cognitive control, attention, and the other race effect in memory. PLoS One. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0173579
Caldara R, Abdi H (2006) Simulating the ‘other-race’ effect with autoassociative neural networks: further evidence in favor of the face-space model. Perception 35(5):659–670. https://doi.org/10.1068/p5360
Chang K-Y, Chen C-S, Hung Y-P (2011) Ordinal hyperplanes ranker with cost sensitivities for age estimation. CVPR. https://doi.org/10.1109/cvpr.2011.5995437
Chen J, Zhu X (2019) The cross-race effect on face recognition and judgments of learning. In: Proceedings of the 3rd international conference on culture, education and economic development of modern society (ICCESE 2019). https://doi.org/10.2991/iccese-19.2019.147
Chen K, Gong S, Xiang T, Loy CC (2013) Cumulative attribute space for age and crowd density estimation. In: 2013 IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition. https://doi.org/10.1109/cvpr.2013.319
Chen S, Zhang C, Dong M, Le J, Rao M (2017) Using ranking-CNN for age estimation. In: 2017 IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition (CVPR). https://doi.org/10.1109/cvpr.2017.86
Daisy MMH, Kannan P (2020) Investigation of rotated local Gabor features in face recognition using fusion techniques. J Ambient Intell Humaniz Comput 12(6):5895–5908. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12652-020-02134-4
Dalziel A (2021) Age fraud and African football. Footiecentral. https://www.footiecentral.com/20210404/age-fraud-and-african-football/. Accessed 16 Oct 2021
Demontis A, Biggio B, Fumera G, Roli F (2015) Super-Sparse regression for fast age estimation from faces at Test Time. In: Image analysis and processing—ICIAP 2015, pp 551–562. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-23234-8_51
Deng Y, Teng S, Fei L, Zhang W, Rida I (2021) A multifeature learning and Fusion Network for Facial Age estimation. Sensors 21(13):4597. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21134597
Drozdowski P, Prommegger B, Wimmer G, Schraml R, Rathgeb C, Uhl A, Busch C (2021) Demographic bias: a challenge for fingervein recognition systems? In: 2020 28th European signal processing conference (EUSIPCO). https://doi.org/10.23919/eusipco47968.2020.9287722
Duan M, Li K, Yang C, Li K (2018) A hybrid deep learning CNN–elm for age and gender classification. Neurocomputing 275:448–461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neucom.2017.08.062
Geng X, Fu Y, Smith-Miles K (2010) Automatic facial age estimation, conference of artificial intelligence, Deagu, 2010
Ghasemi F, Mehridehnavi A, Pérez-Garrido A, Pérez-Sánchez H (2018) Neural network and deep-learning algorithms used in QSAR studies: merits and drawbacks. Drug Discov Today 23(10):1784–1790. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drudis.2018.06.016
Guo G, Mu G (2014) A framework for joint estimation of age, gender and ethnicity on a large database. Image vis Comput 32(10):761–770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imavis.2014.04.011
Han H, Otto C, Jain AK (2013) Age estimation from face images: human vs. machine performance. In: 2013 international conference on biometrics (ICB). https://doi.org/10.1109/icb.2013.6613022
Hasan NF, Mahdi SQ (2020) Facial features extraction using LBP for human age estimation based on SVM Classifier. In: 2020 international conference on computer science and software engineering (CSASE). https://doi.org/10.1109/csase48920.2020.9142085
Hosseini S, Lee SH, Kwon HJ, Koo HI, Cho NI (2018) Age and gender classification using wide convolutional neural network and Gabor Filter. In: 2018 international workshop on advanced image technology (IWAIT). https://doi.org/10.1109/iwait.2018.8369721
Ji Z, Lang C, Li K, Xing J (2018) Deep age estimation model stabilization from images to videos. In: 2018 24th international conference on pattern recognition (ICPR). https://doi.org/10.1109/icpr.2018.8545283
Jin Y, Ruan Q-Q (2007) Gabor-based improved locality preserving projections for face recognition. In: 2007 IEEE international conference on image processing. https://doi.org/10.1109/icip.2007.4378914
Kang J, Kim C, Lee Y, Cho S, Park K (2018) Age estimation robust to optical and motion blurring by deep residual CNN. Symmetry 10(4):108. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym10040108
Li K, Xing J, Hu W, Maybank SJ (2017) D2C: deep cumulatively and comparatively learning for human age estimation. Pattern Recogn 66:95–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.patcog.2017.01.007
Munyoro I (2018) Research data collection in challenging environments: barriers to studying the performance of Zimbabwe’s parliamentary constituency information Centres (PCICs). Afr J Inf Commun 21:81–95
Nam SH, Kim YH, Truong NQ, Choi J, Park KR (2020) Age estimation by super-resolution reconstruction based on adversarial networks. IEEE Access 8:17103–17120. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2020.2967800
Nel E, Rich E, Morojele N, Harker Burnhams N, Petersen Williams P, Parry C (2017) Data collection challenges experienced while conducting the International alcohol control study (IAC) in Tshwane, South Africa. Drugs Educ Prev Policy 24(5):376–383
Ojala T, Pietikainen M, Maenpaa T (2002) Multiresolution gray-scale and rotation invariant texture classification with local binary patterns. IEEE Trans Pattern Anal Mach Intell 24(7):971–987. https://doi.org/10.1109/tpami.2002.1017623
Oladele M, Omidiora E, Afolabi A (2016) A face-based age estimation system using back propagation neural network technique. Br J Math Comput Sci 13(5):1–9. https://doi.org/10.9734/bjmcs/2016/22869
Oladele M (2016) A face-based age estimation system using back propagation neural network technique. Dissertation, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology
Oladipo O, Osamor IP, Osamor VC, Abiodun TN, Omoremi AO, Odim MO, Ekpo RH (2019) Face-age modeling: A pattern recognition analysis for age estimation. In: 2019 IEEE international conference on bioinformatics and biomedicine (BIBM). https://doi.org/10.1109/bibm47256.2019.8983347
Omidiora E, Oladele M, Adepoju T, Sobowale A, Olatoke O (2016) Comparative analysis of back propagation neural network and self-organizing feature map in estimating age groups using facial features. Br J Appl Sci Technol 15(1):1–7. https://doi.org/10.9734/bjast/2016/24303
Onapajo H (2014) Violence and votes in Nigeria: the dominance of incumbents in the use of violence to rig elections. Afr Spectr 49(2):27–51
Osamor IP, Osamor VC (2020) OsamorSoft: clustering index for comparison and quality validation in high throughput dataset. J Big Data 7(1):1–13
Pan Z, Li Z, Fan H, Wu X (2017) Feature based local binary pattern for rotation invariant texture classification. Expert Syst Appl 88:238–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2017.07.007
Phillips PJ, Jiang F, Narvekar A, Ayyad J, O’Toole AJ (2011) An other-race effect for face recognition algorithms. ACM Trans Appl Percept 8(2):1–11. https://doi.org/10.1145/1870076.1870082
Pirlea F (2019) https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/birth-registration-less-50-many-african-countries. Accessed 20 Nov 2021
Qawaqneh Z, Mallouh AA, Barkana BD (2017) Age and gender classification from speech and face images by jointly fine-tuned deep neural networks. Expert Syst Appl 85:76–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2017.05.037
Rattani A, Reddy N, Derakhshani R (2018) Convolutional neural networks for gender prediction from smartphone-based ocular images. IET Biometrics 7(5):423–430. https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-bmt.2017.0171
Rodríguez P, Cucurull G, Gonfaus JM, Roca FX, Gonzàlez J (2017) Age and gender recognition in the wild with deep attention. Pattern Recogn 72:563–571. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.patcog.2017.06.028
Samad R, Sawada H (2011) Extraction of the minimum number of Gabor wavelet parameters for the recognition of natural facial expressions. Artif Life Robot 16(1):21–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10015-011-0871-6
Shen L, Bai L (2006) A review on Gabor wavelets for face recognition. Pattern Anal Appl 9(2–3):273–292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10044-006-0033-y
Sokoh GC (2017) Age falsification and its impact on continuity and service delivery in the delta state civil service. IOSR J Humanit Soc Sci IOSR-JHSS 22:52–63
Tosam M (2015) The ethical and social implications of age-cheating in Africa. Int J Philos 3:1. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijp.20150301.11
Tripathi RK, Jalal AS (2021) Novel local feature extraction for age invariant face recognition. Expert Syst Appl 175:114786. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2021.114786
Tumang B (2009) Age cheating: the scourge of Africa. Bleacher report. https://bleacherreport.com/articles/217628-age-cheating-the-scourge-of-africa. Accessed 20 Oct 2021
Wan J, Tan Z, Lei Z, Guo G, Li SZ (2018) Auxiliary demographic information assisted age estimation with cascaded structure. IEEE Trans Cybern 48(9):2531–2541. https://doi.org/10.1109/tcyb.2017.2741998
Wang X, Kambhamettu C (2015) Age estimation via unsupervised neural networks. In: 2015 11th IEEE international conference and workshops on automatic face and gesture recognition (FG). https://doi.org/10.1109/fg.2015.7163119
Woryi P (2018) 10 problems of research in Nigeria and possible solutions. Infoguide Nigeria. https://infoguidenigeria.com/problems-research-nigeria/ Accessed 20 Oct 2021
Xu X, Li Y, Wu QM (2019) A multiscale hierarchical threshold-based completed local entropy binary pattern for texture classification. Cogn Comput 12(1):224–237. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12559-019-09673-9
Yi D, Lei Z, Li SZ (2015) Age estimation by multi-scale convolutional network. In: Computer vision—ACCV 2014, pp 144–158. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16811-1_10
Yoo BI, Kwak Y, Kim Y, Choi C, Kim J (2018) Deep facial age estimation using conditional multitask learning with weak label expansion. IEEE Signal Process Lett 25(6):808–812. https://doi.org/10.1109/lsp.2018.2822241
Zaghbani S, Boujneh N, Bouhlel MS (2018) Age estimation using deep learning. Comput Electr Eng 68:337–347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compeleceng.2018.04.012
Acknowledgements
We thank Covenant University for providing the platform for promoting the execution of the work.
Funding
Covenant University supports the article processing charges of the publication.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
VCO and EOO conceived the idea of the work. VCO and EOO designed the work OO, and VCO participated in the experiment execution. VCO, OO and EOO participated in writing of the manuscript. VCO and EOO supervised the work. All the authors reviewed the manuscript and approved it for submission.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.
Ethics approval
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Oladipo, O., Omidiora, E.O. & Osamor, V.C. Comparative analysis of features extraction techniques for black face age estimation. AI & Soc (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-022-01407-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-022-01407-0