Abstract
Along the boundary between the Precambrian basement and the Permo-Mesozoic sedimentary basin of northernmost Madagascar, an extensive network of epigenetic quartz-barite veins can be found. The veins are extensional in nature and show a polyphase paragenesis. Some of the veins, especially in the northern part of the district, hold some minor Zn-Pb sulfides and erratically distributed, native gold mineralization. The latter has been exploited in the past and is currently subject to artisanal mining activity. Saline aqueous fluid inclusions in the various quartz and barite vein generations indicate involvement of a relatively cool (<100 °C), high-salinity (~24 eq. wt% NaCl) fluid and a hotter fluid (>160 °C) of lower salinity (~5 eq. wt% NaCl). Analyses of fluid inclusion leachates suggest that the high-salinity end member was a bittern brine, residual to seawater evaporation, whereas the low-salinity end member was a hydrothermal, metal-bearing fluid that had been sourced from the crystalline basement. Sporadic aqueous-carbonic fluid inclusions possibly represent involvement of a third fluid component of metamorphic or magmatic affinity that might have been responsible for the minor gold mineralization. The δ34S composition of the barites averages 20.6 ± 2‰ V-CDT and is indicative for a seawater origin of sulfur. Sulfate was sourced either from evaporite minerals (e.g., gypsum) present in the Early Mesozoic sedimentary sequence or was originally concentrated in the bittern brine. While the timing of mineralization remains enigmatic due to the lack of reliable radiometric age determinations, the metallogenic constrains support vein formation during or shortly after the establishment of evaporitic conditions, likely around the Middle Jurassic, in the intracratonic rift basin that developed between the East African and Madagascar-Seychelles-India plates.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Barintzeff JM, Liégeois JP, Bonin B, Bellon H, Rasamimanana G (2010) Madagascar volcanic provinces linked to the Gondwana break-up: geochemical and isotopic evidences for contrasting mantle sources. Gondwana Res 18:295–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2009.11.010
Behr HJ, Horn EE, Frentzel-Beyme K, Reutel C (1987) Fluid inclusion characteristics of the Variscan and post-Variscan mineralizing fluids in the Federal Republic of Germany. Chem Geol 61:273–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2541(87)90046-5
Besairie H (1964) Gîtes minéraux de Madagascar. Doc Bur Géol 167a. Service Géologique, Tananarive, pp 39–44
Besairie H (1966) Gîtes minéraux de Madagascar. Ann géol Mad 34:437
Besairie H (1968) Description géologique du massif ancien de Madagascar, Première Volume, Centre Nord et Nord-Est. Doc Bur Géol 177a, Service Géologique, Tananarive, p 117
Besairie H, Collignon M (1971) Géologie de Madagascar – 1. Les terrains sédimentaires. Ann géol Mad 35:465
Blount CW (1977) Barite solubilities and thermodynamic quantities up to 300°C and 1400 bars. Am Min 62:942–957
Bodnar RJ (1993) Revised equation and table for determining the freezing point depression of H2O-NaCl solutions. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 57:683–684. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(93)90378-A
Boiron MC, Cathelineau M, Richard A (2010) Fluid flows and metal deposition near the basement/cover unconformity: lessons and analogies from Pb-Zn-F-Ba systems for the understanding of Proterozoic U deposits. Geofluids 10:270–292. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-8123.2010.00289.x
Boni M, Muchez P, Schneider J (2002) Permo-Mesozoic multiple fluid flow and ore deposits in Sardinia: a comparison with post-Variscan mineralization of Western Europe. In: Blundell DJ, Neubauer F, von Quadt A (eds) The timing and location of major ore deposits in an evolving orogen. Geol Soc Lond Spec Pub 204, London, pp 199–211. https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2002.204.01.12
Bouabdellah M, Margoum D (2016) Geology, fluid inclusions, and geochemistry of the Aouli sulphide ± fluorite ± barite vein deposit (Upper Moulouya District, Morocco) and its relationships to Pangean rifting and opening of the Tethys and Central Atlantic Oceans. In: Bouabdellah M, Slack JF (eds) Mineral deposits of north Africa. Springer, Cham, pp 291–305. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-31733-5_11
Bouch JE, Naden J, Shepherd TJ, Mckervey JA, Young B, Benham AJ, Sloane HJ (2006) Direct evidence of fluid mixing in the formation of stratabound Pb-Zn-Ba-F mineralization in the Alston Block, North Pennine Orefield (England). Miner Deposita 41:821–835. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-006-0093-3
BRGM (1985) Plan directeur d’actions pour la mise en valeur des ressources du sol et du sous-sol de Madagascar, deuxième phase. BRGM for MIEM Madagascar, Antanarivo
Bugg SF (1982) Lead-zinc deposits of the Coast Province of Kenya and some exploration guidelines. OGMR 59, Institute for Geological Sciences, London
Burisch M, Markl G, Gutzmer J (2022) Breakup with benefits – hydrothermal mineral systems related to the disintegration of a supercontinent. Earth Planet Sci Lett 580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2022.117373
Canals A, Cardellach E (1993) Strontium and sulphur isotope geochemistry of low-temperature barite-fluorite veins of the Catalonian Coastal Ranges (NE Spain) – a fluid mixing model and age constraints. Chem Geol 104:269–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2541(93)90156-D
Canals A, Cardellach E, Moritz R, Soler A (1999) The influence of enclosing rock type on barite deposits, eastern Pyrenees, Spain: fluid inclusion and isotope (Sr, S, O, C) data. Miner Deposita 34:199–210. https://doi.org/10.1007/s001260050196
Canfield DE (2004) The evolution of the Earth surface sulfur reservoir. Am J Sci 304:839–861. https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.304.10.839
Carpenter AB, Trout ML, Pickett EE (1974) Preliminary report on the origin and chemical evolution of lead-and zinc-rich oil field brines in central Mississippi. Econ Geol 69(8):1191–1206. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.69.8.1191
Catuneanu O, Wopfner H, Eriksson PG, Cairncross B, Rubidge BS, Smith RMH, Hancox PJ (2005) The Karoo basins of south-central Africa. J African Earth Sci 43:211–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.007
Charef A, Sheppard SMF (1988) The Malines Cambrian carbonate-shale-hosted Pb–Zn deposit, France: thermometric and isotopic (H, O) evidence for pulsating hydrothermal mineralization. Miner Deposita 23:86–95. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00206655
Chi G, Savard MM (1997) Sources of basinal and Mississippi Valley-type mineralizing brines: mixing of evaporated seawater and halite dissolution brine. Chem Geol 143:121–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2541(97)00096-X
Clark S, Orris GJ (1991) Vein barite. In: Orris GJ, Bliss JD (eds) Some industrial mineral deposit models – descriptive deposit models. USGS OFR 91-11A, pp 22–23
Coffin MF, Rabinowitz PD (1988) Evolution of the conjugate East African-Madagascan margins and the western Somali Basin. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 226 Boulder
Coffin MF, Rabinowitz PD (1992) The Mesozoic East African and Madagascan conjugate continental margins – stratigraphy and tectonics. In: Watkins JS, Zhiqiang F, McMillen KJ (eds) Geology and geophysics of continental margins, vol 53. AAPG Mem, pp 207–246
Coleman M, Moore M (1978) Direct reduction of sulfates to sulfate dioxide for isotopic analysis. Anal Chem 50:1594–1595. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac50033a056
Collins AS (2006) Madagascar and the amalgamation of Central Gondwana. Gondwana Res 9:3–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2005.10.001
Collins AS, Windley BF (2002) The tectonic evolution of Central and Northern Madagascar and its place in the final assembly of Gondwana. J Geol 110:325–339. https://doi.org/10.1086/339535
Cucciniello C, Conrad J, Grifa C, Melluso L, Mercurio M, Morra V, Tucker RD, Vincent M (2011) Petrology and geochemistry of Cretaceous mafic and silicic dykes and spatially associated lavas in central-eastern coastal Madagascar. In: Srivastava RK (ed) Dyke swarms: keys for geodynamic interpretation. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg, pp 345–375. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-12496-9_21
Cucciniello C, Melluso L, Jourdan F, Mahoney JJ, Meisel T, Morra V (2013) 40Ar-39 Ar ages and isotope geochemistry of Cretaceous basalts in northern Madagascar: refining eruption ages, extent of crustal contamination and parental magmas in a flood basalt province. Geol Mag 150:1–17. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0016756812000088
Cucciniello C, Tucker RD, Jourdan F, Melluso L, Morra V (2016) The age and petrogenesis of alkaline magmatism in the Ampasindava Peninsula and Nosy Be archipelago, northern Madagascar. Mineral Petrol 110:309–331. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00710-015-0387-1
Davison I, Steel I (2018) Geology and hydrocarbon potential of the East African continental margin – a review. Pet Geosci 24:57–91. https://doi.org/10.1144/petgeo2017-028
Demaiffe D, Dejonghe L (1990) Géochimie isotopique du strontium des barites, anhydrites, calcites et fluorites de Belgique. Ann Soc Géol Belg 113:231–240
Du Bois CGB, Walsh J (1970) Minerals of Kenya. Geol Surv Kenya Bull 11. Ministry of Natural Resources, Nairobi
Dubois M, Monnin C, Castelin T, Coquinot Y, Gouy S, Gauthier A, Goffé B (2010) Investigation of the H2O-NaCl-LiCl system: a synthetic fluid inclusion study and thermodynamic modelling from -50° to +100°C and up to 12 mol/kg. Econ Geol 105:329–338. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.105.2.329
Emery CM, Duncan RA (1982) Age progressive volcanism in the Comores Archipelago, western Indian Ocean and implications for Somali plate tectonics. Earth Planet Sci Lett 60:415–428. https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821X(82)90077-2
Foissy B (1969) Etude géologique des principaux filons de barytine de l’Andavakoera et prises d’echangillons pour essais de traitement. Rapport 69 TAN 4, BRGM, Antanarivo
Fritz H, Abdelsalam M, Ali KA, Bingen B, Collins AS, Fowler AR, Ghebreab W, Hauzenberger CA, Johnson PR, Kusky TM, Macey P, Muhongo S, Stern RJ, Viola G (2013) Orogen styles in the East African Orogen: a review of the Neoproterozoic to Cambrian tectonic evolution. J African Earth Sci 86:65–106
Fusswinkel T, Wagner T, Walle M, Wenzel T, Heinrich CA, Markl G (2013) Fluid mixing forms basement-hosted Pb-Zn deposits: insight from metal and halogen geochemistry of individual fluid inclusions. Geology 41:679–682. https://doi.org/10.1130/G34092.1
Goldstein RH, Reynolds TJ (1994) Systematics of fluid inclusions in diagenetic minerals. SEPM short course 31, SEPM, Tulsa
Hanor JS (2000) Barite-celestine geochemistry and environments of formation. In: Alpers CN, Jambor JL, Nordstrom DK (eds) Sulfate minerals – crystallography, geochemistry, and environmental significance, Rev Mineral Geochem, vol 40, pp 193–275. https://doi.org/10.2138/rmg.2000.40.4
Heijlen W, Banks DA, Muchez P, Stensgard BM, Yardley BWD (2008) The nature of mineralizing fluids of the Kipushi Zn-Cu deposit, Katanga, Democratic Republic of Congo: quantitative fluid inclusion analysis using laser ablation ICP-MS and bulk crush-leach methods. Econ Geol 103:1459–1482. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.103.7.1459
Heijlen W, Muchez P, Banks DA (2001) Origin and evolution of high-salinity, Zn-Pb mineralizing fluids in the Variscides of Belgium. Miner Deposita 36:165–176. https://doi.org/10.1007/s001260050296
Heijlen W, Muchez P, Banks DA, Nielsen P (2000) Origin and geochemical evolution of synsedimentary, syn- and post-tectonic high-salinity fluids at the Variscan thrust front in Belgium. J Geochem Explor 69-70:149–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0375-6742(00)00018-2
Heijlen W, Muchez P, Banks DA, Schneider J, Kucha H, Keppens E (2003) Carbonate-hosted Zn-Pb deposits in Upper Silesia, Poland: origin and evolution of the mineralizing fluids and constraints on genetic models. Econ Geol 98:911–932. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.98.5.911
Jones GD, Whitacker FF, Smart PL, Sanford WE (2002) Fate of reflux brines in carbonate platforms. Geology 30:371–374. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0371:FORBIC>2.0.CO;2
Jones GD, Whitacker FF, Smart PL, Sanford WE (2004) Numerical analysis of seawater circulation in carbonate platforms: II. The dynamic interaction between geothermal and brine reflux circulation. Am J Sci 304:250–284. https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.304.3.250
Jöns N, Emmel B, Schenk V, Razakamanana T (2009) From orogenesis to passive margin: the cooling history of the Bemarivo Belt (N Madagascar), a multi-thermochronometer approach. Gondwana Res 16:72–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2009.02.006
Jöns N, Schenk V, Appel P, Razakamanana T (2006) Two-stage metamorphic evolution of the Bemarivo Belt of northern Madagascar: constraints from reaction textures and in situ monazite dating. J Metamorph Geol 24:329–347. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1314.2006.00641.x
Karche JP (1972) Contribution à l’étude géologique de la Montagne d’Ambre et des regions voisines du Nord de Madagascar. Unpublished PhD-thesis. Université de Besançon
Lacroix A (1922) Minéralogie de Madagascar, Tome II. Minéralogie Appliquée, Challemel, Paris
Lawler JP, Crawford ML (1983) Stretching of fluid inclusions resulting from a low-temperature microthermometric technique. Econ Geol 78:527–529. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.78.3.527
Lowenstein TK, Timofeeff MN, Brennan ST, Hardie LA, Demicco RV (2001) Oscillations in Phanerozoic seawater chemistry: evidence from fluid inclusions. Science 294:1086–1088. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1064280
McCaffrey MA, Lazar B, Holland HD (1987) The evaporation path of seawater and coprecipitation of Br- and K+ with halite. J Sediment Res 57:928–937. https://doi.org/10.1306/212F8CAB-2B24-11D7-8648000102C1865D
Melluso L, Morra V, Brotzu P, Franciosi L, Grifa C, Lustrino M, Morbidelli P, Riziky H, Vincent M (2007) The Cenozoic alkaline magmatism in central-northern Madagascar: a brief overview. Period di Mineral 76:169–180. https://doi.org/10.2451/2007PM0023
Melluso L, Morra V, Brotzu P, Razafiniparany A, Ratrimo V, Razafimahatratra D (1997) Geochemistry and Sr-isotopic composition of the Late Cretaceous flood basalt sequence of northern Madagascar: petrogenetic and geodynamic implications. J African Earth Sci 24:371–390. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0899-5362(97)00050-X
Michard G (1990) Behaviour of major elements and some trace elements (Li, Rb, Cs, Sr, Fe, Mn, W, F) in deep hot waters from granitic areas. Chem Geol 89:117–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2541(90)90062-C
Michon L (2016) The volcanism of the Comores archipelago integrated at a regional scale. In: Bachelery P, Lénat JF, Di Muro A, Michon L (eds) Active volcanoes of the southwestern Indian Ocean: Piton de la Fournaise and Karthala. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-31395-0_21
Mitchell JG, Halliday A (1976) Extent of Triassic/Jurassic hydrothermal ore deposits on the North Atlantic Margins. Trans Am Inst Min Metall B 85:159–161
Monnin C (1999) A thermodynamic model for the solubility of barite and celestite in electrolyte solutions and seawater to 200°C and to 1 kbar. Chem Geol 153:187–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2541(98)00171-5
Muchez P, Heijlen W, Banks DA, Blundell D, Boni M, Grandia F (2005) Extensional tectonics and the timing and formation of basin-hosted deposits in Europe. Ore Geol Rev 27:241–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2005.07.013
Muir-Wood R (1994) Earthquakes, strain-cycling and the mobilization of fluids. In: Parnell J (ed) Geofluids: origin, migration and evolution of fluids in sedimentary basins. Geol Soc Lond Spec Pub 78, London, pp 85–98. https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.1994.078.01.08
Nougier J, Cantagrel JM, Karch JP (1986) The Comores archipelago in the western Indian Ocean: volcanology, geochronology and geodynamic setting. J African Earth Sci 5:135–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/0899-5362(86)90003-5
Oakes CS, Bodnar RJ, Simonson JM (1990) The system NaCl-CaCl2-H2O: 1 the ice liquidus at 1 atm total pressure. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 54:603–610. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(90)90356-P
Ogundipe IE (2017) Thermal and chemical variations of the Nigerian Benue trough lead-zinc-barite-fluorite deposits. J African Earth Sci 132:72–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.05.004
Papini M, Benvenuti M (2008) The Toarcian-Bathonian succession of the Antsiranana Basin (NW Madagascar): facies analysis and tectono-sedimentary history in the development of the East Africa-Madagascar conjugate margins. J African Earth Sci 51:21–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2007.11.003
Pfaff K, Hildebrandt LH, Leach DL, Jacob DE, Markl G (2010) Formation of the Wiesloch Mississippi Valley-type Zn-Pb-Ag deposit in the extensional setting of the Upper Rhinegraben, SW Germany. Miner Deposita 45:647–666. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-010-0296-5
Phethean JJJ, Kalnins LM, van Hunen J, Biffi PG, Davies RJ, McCaffrey JW (2016) Madagascar’s escape from Africa: a high-resolution plate reconstruction for the Western Somali Basin and implications for supercontinent dispersal. Geochem Geophys Geosyst 17:5036–5055. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GC006624
Pokrovski GS, Akinfiev NN, Borisova AY, Zotov AV, Kouzmanov K (2014) Gold specification and transport in geological fluids – insights from experiments and physical-chemical modelling. In: Garofalo PS, Ridley JR (eds) Gold-transporting hydrothermal fluids in the Earth’s crust. Geol Soc Lond Spec Pub 402, London. https://doi.org/10.1144/SP402.4
Present TM, Adkins JF, Fisher WW (2020) Variability in sulfur isotope records of Phanerozoic seawater sulfate. Geophys Res Lett 47. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL088766
Pulfrey W, Walsh J (1969) The geology and mineral resources of Kenya (second revision). Geol Surv Kenya Bull 9 Nairobi
Rajaobelison M, Raymond J, Malo M, Dezayes C (2020) Classification of geothermal systems in Madagascar. Geotherm. Energy 8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40517-020-00176-7
Reeves C (2014) The position of Madagascar within Gondwana and its movements during Gondwana dispersal. J African Earth Sci 94:45–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2013.07.011
Robinson GR Jr, Woodruff LG (1988) Characteristics of base-metal and barite vein deposits associated with rift basins, with examples from some early Mesozoic basins of eastern North America. In: Froelich AJ, Robinson GR Jr (eds) Studies of the early Mesozoic basins of the eastern United States, USGS Bull, vol 1776, pp 377–390
Roedder E (1984) Fluid inclusions. Rev Mineral 12 Mineral Soc Am, Washington
Roig JY, Tucker RD, Peters SG, Delor C, Théveniaut H (2012) Carte géologique de la République de Madagascar à 1/1,000,000. Ministère des Mines, Antananarivo
Sabouraud C, Macquar JC, Rouvier H (1980) Les inclusions fluids, témoins et faux-témoins des conditions de dépôt. Quelques exemples pris dans les minéralisations de Pb, Zn, Ba, F du sud du Massif Central français: Miner Deposita 15:211–230. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00206515
Samaoui S, Ayoub A, Nguidi MA, Boushaba A, Belkasmi M, Baidder L, Bba AN, Othmane L, Taadid M, Zehni A (2023) Fault-controlled barite veins of the eastern Anti-Atlas (Ougnat, Morocco), a far-field effect of the Central Atlantic opening? Structural analysis and metallogenic implications. J African Earth Sci 204:104970. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2023.104970
Seal RR, Alpers CN, Rye RO (2000) Stable isotope systematics of sulfate minerals. In: Alpers CN, Jambor JL, Nordstrom DK (eds) Sulfate minerals: crystallography, geochemistry, and environmental significance, vol 40. Rev Mineral Geochem, Min Soc Am, Washington, pp 541–602. https://doi.org/10.2138/rmg.2000.40.12
Sibson RH (1987) Earthquake rupturing as a mineralizing agent in hydrothermal systems. Geology 15:701–704. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1987)15<701:ERAAMA>2.0.CO;2
Sibson RH (1994) Crustal stress, faulting and fluid flow. In: Parnell J (ed) Geofluids: origin, migration and evolution of fluids in sedimentary basins. Geol Soc Lond Spec Pub 78, London, pp 69–84. https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.1994.078.01.07
SMOA (1942) Rapport Général. Société des Mines d’Or de l’Andavakoera (SMOA) Unpublished Report (29/04/1942)
Staude S, Bons PD, Markl G (2009) Hydrothermal vein formation by extension-driven dewatering of the middle crust: an example from SW Germany. EPSL 286:387–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2009.07.012
Staude S, Göb S, Pfaff K, Ströbele F, Premo WR, Markl G (2011) Deciphering fluid sources of hydrothermal systems: a combined Sr- and S-isotope study on barite (Schwarzwald, SW Germany). Chem Geol 286:1–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2011.04.009
Steele-MacInnis M, Bodnar RJ, Naden J (2011) Numerical model to determine the composition of H2O-NaCl-CaCl2 fluid inclusions based on microthermometric and microanalytical data. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 75:21–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2010.10.002
Steele-MacInnis M, Ridley J, Lecumberri-Sanchez P, Schlegel TU, Heinrich CA (2016) Application of low-temperature microthermometric data for interpreting multicomponent fluid inclusion compositions. Earth Sci Rev 159:14–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.04.011
Stern RJ (1994) Arc assembly and continental collision in the Neoproterozoic East African Orogen: implications for the consolidation of Gondwanaland. Annu Rev Earth Plan Sci 22:319–351. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.22.050194.001535
Storey M, Mahoney JJ, Saunders AD, Duncan RA, Kelley SP, Millard FC (1995) Timing of hot spot-related volcanism and the breakup of Madagascar and India. Science 267:852–855. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.267.5199.852
Tari G, Coterill K, Molnar J, Valasek D, Walters G, Alvarez Y (2004) Salt tectonics and sedimentation in the offshore Majunga Basin, Madagascar. In: Post PJ, Olson DL, Lyons KT, Palmes SL, Harrison PF, Rosen NC (eds) Salt sediment interactions and hydrocarbon prospectivity concepts, applications and case studies for the 21st century, SEPM, vol 24, pp 614–639. https://doi.org/10.5724/gcs.04.24.0614
Thomas RJ (2008) Geological map of Madagascar at the 1/100,000 scale – Ambikarano sheet (U33). PGRM Phase II, Ministry of Energy and Mines, Antananarivo
Thomas RJ, De Waele B (2008a) Geological map of Madagascar at the 1/100,000 scale – Betsiaka sheet (V32). PGRM Phase II Ministry of Energy and Mines, Antananarivo
Thomas RJ, De Waele B (2008b) Geological map of Madagascar at the 1/100,000 scale – Ambohibada sheet (V33). PGRM Phase II Ministry of Energy and Mines, Antananarivo
Thomas RJ, De Waele B, Ford J (2008) Geological map of Madagascar at the 1/100,000 scale – Ambilobe sheet (U32). PGRM Phase II Ministry of Energy and Mines, Antananarivo
Thomas RJ, De Waele B, Schofield DI, Goodenough KM, Horstwood M, Tucker R, Bauer W, Annells R, Howard K, Walsh G, Rabarimanana M, Rafahatelo JM, Ralison AV, Randriamananjara R (2009) Geological evolution of the Neoproterozoic Bemarivo Belt, northern Madagascar. Precambrian Res 172:279–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2009.04.008
Thompson AO (1954) Geology of the Malindi area. Geol Surv Kenya Rep 36. Ministry of Natural Resources, Nairobi
Tornos F, Casquet C, Locutura J, Collado R (1991) Fluid inclusion and geochemical evidence for fluid mixing in the genesis of Ba-F (Pb-Zn) lodes of the Spanish Central System. Mineral Mag 55:225–234. https://doi.org/10.1180/minmag.1991.055.379.11
Torsvik TH, Tucker RD, Ashwal LD, Eide EA, Rakotosolofo NA, de Wit MJ (1998) Late Cretaceous magmatism in Madagascar: palaeomagnetic evidence for a stationary Marion hotspot. EPSL 164:221–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-821X(98)00206-4
Tucker RD, Conrad J, Key RM, Pitfield PEJ, Randriamananjara T, Taylor CD, Goodenough KM, Thomas RJ (2008) 40Ar/39Ar geochronology of Mesozoic and younger igneous rocks, Madagascar. In: Revision of the geologic and mineral cartography of the north, central and east-central zones of Madagascar – explanatory note to the Republic of Madagascar. Ministry of Energy and Mines. BGS Rep CR/08/078, pp 385–435
Tucker RD, Peters SG, Roig JY, Théveniaut H, Delor C (2012) Notice explicative des cartes géologique et métallogénique de la République de Madagascar à 1:1,000,000. Ministère des Mines, Antananarivo
Tucker RD, Roig JY, Moine B, Delor C, Peters SG (2014) A geological synthesis of the Precambrian shield in Madagascar. J African Earth Sci 94:9–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2014.02.001
Ulrich MR, Bodnar RJ (1988) Systematics of stretching of fluid inclusions II – Barite at 1 atm confining pressure. Econ Geol 73:1037–1046. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.83.5.1037
Valenza K, Moritz R, Mouttaqi A, Fontignie D, Sharp Z (2000) Vein and karts barite deposits in the western Jebilet of Morocco: fluid inclusion and isotope (S, O, Sr) evidence for regional fluid mixing related to Central Atlantic rifting. Econ Geol 95:587–606. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.95.3.587
Walter BF, Burisch M, Marks MAW, Markl G (2017) Major element compositions of fluid inclusions from hydrothermal vein-type deposits record eroded sedimentary units in the Schwarzwald district, SW Germany. Miner Deposita 52:1191–1204. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-017-0719-7
Walter LM, Stueber AM, Huston TJ (1990) Br-Cl-Na systematics in Illinois basin fluids - constraints on fluid origin and evolution. Geology 18:315–318. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1990)018<0315:BCNSII>2.3.CO;2
Warren J (1999) Evaporites: their evolution and economics. Blackwell Science Ltd, Oxford
Windley BF, Razafiniparany A, Razakamanana T, Akermand D (1994) Tectonic framework of the Precambrian of Madagascar and its Gondwana connections: a review and reappraisal. Geol Rundsch 83:642–659. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00194168
Worden RH (1996) Controls on halogen concentrations in sedimentary formation waters. Mineral Mag 60:259–274. https://doi.org/10.1180/minmag.1996.060.399.02
Yang F, Mao J, Wang Y, Frank PB (2006) Geology and geochemistry of the Bulong quartz–barite vein-type gold deposit in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region China. Ore Geol Rev 29(1):52–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2005.07.033
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Herman Nijs for the preparation of thin sections and doubly polished wafers. Vincent Verswijfel and Elvira Vassilieva carefully prepared and analyzed samples from the crush-leach analyses. Sibelco NV provided support for the organization of the fieldwork, which is greatly appreciated. The article benefitted by the critical and constructive reviews of two anonymous reviewers who are greatly acknowledged. We also thank the editors David Banks and Bernd Lehmann for handling the publication.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Editorial handling: D. Banks
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary information
ESM 1
(DOCX 20 kb)
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Heijlen, W., Vos, K., Kartalis, N. et al. The formation of vein-type barite (± base metal, gold) deposits in northern Madagascar and its link with Mesozoic Pangean rifting. Miner Deposita 59, 255–273 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-023-01205-8
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-023-01205-8