Abstract
The adequate use of opioids in the treatment of chronic cancer pain requires sound knowledge of selection criteria for the various opioids, the routes of administration, dosages, dosing schemes and possible side effects. Drug selection depends on the intensity of pain rather than on the specific pathophysiology. Mild to moderate pain can often be treated effectively by so-called “weak” opioids. These include codeine, dihydrocodeine and dextropropoxyphene. Non-opioid analgesics, like acetylsalicylic acid or paracetamol can be added according to the “analgesic ladder” proposed by the World Health Organization (WHO). If adequate pain relief is not achieved “strong” opioids are required. The route of administration that is the safest and the least invasive for the patient should be chosen. Non-invasive (oral, rectal, sublingual, transdermal and intranasal) and invasive routes (intravenous, subcutaneous, spinal and epidural) are available (Table 8). Noninvasive routes are preferred, and most patients can be maintained on oral opioids. Alternatively, in some patients pain can be managed by the sublingual (buprenorphine) route. A transdermal preparation exists for fentanyl, but has not yet been approved for the German market. If the oral route cannot be used or if large doses are required, it will be necessary to change to an invasive route. Intravenous bolus injections provide the fastest onset of analgesic action. They are mostly used in very severe pain. Repeated injections can be avoided by using intravenous or subcutaneous infusions. Various types of pumps delivering analgesics at constant basal infusion rates with the option of rescue doses in case of breakthrough pain are available (patient-controlled analgesia=PCA). Opioids frequently used for s. c. infusion are morphine and hydromorphone. Adjuvant drugs (antiemetics, anxiolytics) can be added. Epidural or intrathecal administration of opioids should only be used in intractable pain or if severe side effects, such as sedation and confusion, will arise with systemic opioids. Morphine, hydromorphone, fentanyl and sufentanil have been used, as have other additional compounds (e.g. local anaesthetics, clonidine). Intracerebroventricular application of morphine has been used only occasionally. In all cases, opioids should be given on to a fixed time schedule thereby, preventing pain from recurring. Additional rescue doses (approximately 50% of baseline single dose) are given for break-through pain. The most frequent side effect of opioids is constipation, and the administration of laxatives is often recommended (Table 5). Nausea, vomiting, sedation and confusion mostly occur in the beginning of opioid therapy. In contrast to constipation, tolerance to these effects develops within days or weeks. True dependence or psychological addiction rarely occurs in patients with chronic cancer pain. In most cases, progression of the underlying disease associated with increasing tissue damage and increasing pain is found. Fear of dependence and addiction often contributes to undertreatment of patients suffering from chronic cancer pain.
Zusammenfassung
Voraussetzungen für den Einsatz von Opioiden bei der Therapie von Tumorschmerzen sind Kenntnisse über die Auswahl der Medikamente, die möglichen Applikationsformen und ihre Dosierung sowie Nebenwirkungen einer Opioidtherapie. Die Schmerzstärke stellt das wichtigste Kriterium zur Auswahl des Opioids dar. Geringe bis mittelstarke Schmerzen können meist ausreichend mit schwach wirksamen Opioiden (Dihydrocodein, Dextropropoxyphen) in Kombination mit einem Nichtopioid-Analgetikum (ASS) behandelt werden. Veränderungen der Pharmakokinetik und Pharmakodynamik von Opioiden durch erhöhtes Alter der Patienten, Leber-oder Niereninsuffizienz sowie Interaktionen mit anderen Medikamenten müssen berücksichtigt werden. Bei diesen Erkrankungen sollten Präparate mit kurzen Plasmahalbwertszeiten verwendet werden. Die Einnahme des Opioids soll für die Patienten so einfach wie möglich sein und eine suffiziente Schmerzreduktion bewirken. Nichtinvasive Applikationsformen (z.B. oral, rektal, sublingual, transdermal) und invasive Formen (intravenös, subkutan) sind möglich. Nichtinvasive Applikationsformen sind zu bevorzugen, und insbesondere orale Medikationen werden von den Patienten gut toleriert. Durch Verwendung von Retardpräparaten kann die Anzahl der täglichen Medikamenteneinnahmen verringert werden. Die Opioide sollten regelmäßig (zu bestimmten Zeiten) eingenommen werden und beim Auftreten von Schmerzspitzen durch zusätzliche Opioidgaben (ca. 50% der jeweiligen Einzeldosis) ergänzt werden. Ist eine orale Medikation nicht durchführbar oder sind größere Opioiddosen notwendig, kann auf eine invasive Applikationsform gewechselt werden. Häufige Bolusinjektionen können durch die Verwendung kontinuierlicher Infusionen (i.v., s.c.) umgangen werden. Auch hier kann mittels Infusionspumpen das Prinzip einer Basisdosierung mit möglichen Zusatzdosen bei Schmerzspitzen realisiert werden (Patient Controlled Analgesia=PCA). Für die i.v. und s.c. Infusion werden meist Morphin und Hydromorphon verwendet, für die rückenmarksnahe Anwendung zusätzlich auch Fentanyl und Sufentanil. Die spinale Applikation kann bei Nebenwirkungen durch oral oder parenteral angewandte Opioide versucht werden. Die gleichzeitige Gabe von Koanalgetika (z.B. Clonidin) und Adjuvanzien (Antiemetika, Anxiolytika) ist möglich. Die intrazerebroventrikuläre Applikation von Opioiden ist nur sehr selten notwendig. Die häufigste Nebenwirkung einer Opioidtherapie ist Obstipation. Ihr Auftreten ist so wahrscheinlich, daß die prophylaktische Gabe von Laxanzien indiziert ist. Zu Beginn einer Opioidtherapie treten häufig Übelkeit, Erbrechen sowie Sedierung auf. Eine Toleranzentwicklung ist für diese Wirkungen innerhalb der ersten Tage bis Wochen zu beobachten-für die Obstipation gilt dies jedoch nicht. Eine psychische Abhängigkeit durch Opioide tritt bei Patienten mit chronischen Schmerzen nur extrem selten auf. Meist ist bei einer Erhöhung der Dosis ein Fortschreiten der Grunderkrankung nachzuweisen. Unsicherheit und fehlende Kenntnis dieser Phänomene bei Patienten und Ärzten führen nicht selten zu einer Unterversorgung chronisch schmerzkranker Patienten mit potenten Analgetika.
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Cherny, N.I., Portenoy, R.K., Raber, M. et al. Medikamentöse Therapie von Tumorschmerzen. Schmerz 9, 3–19 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02530380
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02530380