Keywords

1.1 Gaining Clarity: A Context-Focused Journey to Empowerment

The term “empowerment” has become overused and may have lost its original meaning due to excessive use, to the point of suffering from a “semantic atrophy” (Sewell, 2002). Its use by political leaders and Western scholars often has an ideological basis, resulting in a vague and shallow understanding of the concept (Perkins, 2010). Women empowerment is not a singular state’s creation but rather a global shift in political practices and a main goal of sustainable development, with countries worldwide ratifying the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2016. The Arab Gulf states have adopted policies aligned with these goals, to be achieved by 2030, showing progress in areas such as industry (SDG 9), sustainability (SDG 11), energy (SDG 7), and economic growth (SDG 8), but lagging in gender equality and women empowerment (SDG 5) (Balla & Mohamed, 2022). Thus, investigating the relationship between women empowerment and public policy in the Arab Gulf States and identifying related opportunities and challenges is timely and crucial.

A comprehensive data collection was conducted over three years as part of a research project funded by the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) due to the lack of empirical studies on this topic in the GCC countries. The book draws upon this rich qualitative data, along with other research, to provide a deeper understanding of women empowerment and to build an evidence-based knowledge to inform policy-making. The book also aims to address gaps in the existing literature and to respond to calls for further exploration of this complex topic.

Women empowerment and gender equality have become part of the modern vocabulary of policymakers (Abu-Lughod, 2013), a development policy paradigm (Huelss, 2017), a tool for economic growth (Chant, 2016), an instrument of soft politics (Doumato, 2011), and even a tool of deflection, particularly in the aftermath of the Arab Spring (Al-Hussain, 2022). However, globally and locally, the political and economic instrumentalization of empowerment has raised concerns about the genuine representation of women’s voices, opinions, and experiences. It is crucial to question the stereotypes and essentialisms related to Arab women as oppressed victims of patriarchy and religion (Coleman, 2013) and to explore a more nuanced understanding of women’s realities (Cornwall & Rivas, 2015). In this regard, this book focuses on the Arab Gulf countries, with a special emphasis on Qatar, and adopts a contextual approach and conceptualization of empowerment, exploring the perceptions and realities of women to inform research and policy agendas.

1.2 Beyond the Trees: A Context-Driven Approach to Empowerment

Empowerment is a concept that lacks a clear definition in academia and among policymakers (Kabeer, 1999). Moseale (2015) highlights the lack of efforts to define empowerment in specific contexts. More recently, Ng et al. (2022) call for further research to better understand the complexities of empowerment in local contexts. Arab Gulf countries present an interesting and complex context, with contrasting perspectives on progress and tradition, and global and local pressures (Ennis, 2019). These countries also have unique demographic, geopolitical, and economic conditions, being home to some of the wealthiest economies in the region and seeking a transition to a knowledge-based economy. This study focuses on Qatar as a case study.

International agencies and institutions largely shape women’s empowerment as a state policy. This approach is problematic, as it risks overlooking the local context in developing countries like the Arab Gulf states, which must adopt policies and programs, regardless of their impact. It is important to define women’s empowerment outside of orientalist and post-colonialist frameworks (Abu-Lughod, 2013). To understand the meaning of empowerment in this context, we must challenge the “coloniality of power” (Metcalfe et al., 2022) and the stereotyping of women in the Global South (Chant, 2016) through “epistemic healing” (Khan & Naguib, 2019) to counter the prevailing “epistemic violence” (Dotson, 2011), which excludes certain groups from participating in the creation of social meanings (Fricker, 2013). The objective of this book is to restore women’s voices as key touchstones (Batliwala, 2007; 2010) and present their contextual and local narratives of empowerment based on extensive primary data, particularly in Qatar.

Empowerment should begin with acknowledging Muslim women in Arab countries as producers of knowledge and giving them a legitimate voice in the cognitive process, rather than viewing them solely as victims of cultural practices. The policies of inclusion advocated by the “entrepreneurs of empowerment” may be based on the exclusion of many women in developing countries. Participants in this study, however, have proven to have the necessary cognitive resources and display impressive critical consciousness, analysis skills, education attainment, and a strong understanding of their religion and history. Their moral values emphasize justice and dignity, beyond just gender equality. They seek to be restored within the discourse and practice of empowerment.

1.3 Grounded Approach to Women’s Empowerment: Understanding the Complexities

The concept of women’s empowerment is complex and multi-faceted, making it difficult to reach a universal consensus on its definition (Ng et al., 2022). To understand it effectively, policymakers must consider the individual, sociocultural, and epistemological factors that influence how empowerment is perceived and interpreted. Despite a wealth of literature on the topic, many empirical studies do not fully examine the multiple components and interconnections that shape empowerment (Grabe, 2012). In response, Rabia Naguib in Chapter 2 aims to fill this gap by examining the multiple dimensions of empowerment, breaking down their interrelationships, and clarifying the roles they play. The author presents a grounded conceptual framework based on women’s narratives, including nationals and expatriates as well as working and non-working women, offering a comprehensive and contextualized approach to empowerment that takes into account an Islamic worldview.

Empowerment is viewed as a continuous, evolving process that requires agency and decision-making power, both of which are influenced by a range of internal and external resources (psychological, political, economic, sociocultural, and spiritual). The availability of these resources and opportunities (such as self-motivation, skills, education, and support from family and institutions) affects women’s overall wellbeing and quality of life, which in turn affects their level of agency and motivation. Empowerment should not be viewed as a destination to be reached through specific programs, but as a journey where the pathways women take in their individual and collective experiences remain hidden (Cornwall, 2016). The meaning and understanding of empowerment in the Arab Gulf states is rooted in a collectivist context and Islamic worldview, which requires further exploration.

1.4 Re-Envisioning Women’s Empowerment: A Maqasid Approach to Understanding Women’s Status and Rights in Islam

The analysis of women’s empowerment in the GCC is closely tied to cultural processes, including the influence of Islamic values that form a significant part of women’s identities in the Gulf region. Western-led international perspectives on women’s empowerment in Muslim countries often erroneously assume that Islamic Shari’a and governance are the primary obstacles to women’s empowerment. This notion must be challenged. Researchers in the Middle East have called for a more comprehensive investigation of the role of religion in shaping women’s subjectivity and agency (Metcalfe et al., 2022; Ng et al., 2022; Salem & Yount, 2019). Our empirical study, outlined in Chapter 2, finds that participants view Islam as a catalyst for women’s empowerment, not a barrier. They assert their rights and advocate for gender justice within the Islamic framework.

The neoliberal development policies promoted by international institutions often encourage a “rebellious promethean self,” contrasting with the “collective subjectivity” and submission to God’s will in the Islamic worldview. Therefore, it is crucial to understand empowerment through an Islamic lens, using the Shari’a, which translates to “the path to follow.” The objectives (maqasid) of the Shari’a focus on maximizing public welfare and the common good, through promoting what is beneficial (manfaa’) and avoiding what is harmful (madarra), while considering both the wordly and spiritual realms.

Policymakers in Arab Gulf countries often confront political and moral dilemmas, especially when they must ratify international conventions or adopt foreign policies that may conflict with their underlying belief system. For example, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) has been ratified by most Muslim-majority countries with formal reservations, allowing them to exempt themselves from certain obligations. Given its critical importance, this topic is thoroughly explored in Chapter 3 by Basma Abdelgaffar, who adopts a Maqasid al Sharia’s perspective to examine and contrast the moral assumptions and implications of women’s empowerment from both a Western lens as represented by CEDAW and an Islamic perspective using a new Maqasid methodology (NMM).

1.5 Empowering Women Through Public Sector Employment: Challenges and Opportunities

The emphasis on women’s economic empowerment in shaping gender policies globally has been primarily motivated by “efficiency imperatives” and the “economic utility of empowering women” (Chant, 2016, p. 5). This approach, enforced by international institutions on a global scale, raises concerns about the legitimacy of the policies and the moral authority underlying them. International organizations claim a universal morality and the right to define women’s empowerment, often pressurizing local governments to adjust their policies accordingly. Consequently, women’s wellbeing becomes linked to economic growth rather than true emancipation and an improved quality of life. In the context of the Arab Gulf states, the rentier governmentality has prioritized female empowerment for economic reasons (Karolak, 2013).

Women’s engagement in the labor force in the GCC countries is not solely a consequence of poverty but rather a political priority within post-oil economic diversification strategies and an attempt to decrease dependence on foreign labor. This underscores the necessity of investigating women’s labor force participation in a setting where they have the liberty to choose whether to join the workforce. Despite having high educational achievements, female labor force participation in the GCC nations ranks among the lowest worldwide, with a noticeable gender gap. Research in the region has primarily focused on female entrepreneurs and women in leadership roles, leaving women in lower to middle-level positions in the public sector and non-working women relatively unexplored. There are limited studies examining the institutional environments, sector contexts, and socio-material and religio-political practices that may influence women’s employment prospects in the MENA region (Metcalfe et al., 2022).

Rabia Naguib and Ahmed Aref in Chapter 4 tackle the challenges and opportunities of women’s empowerment through employment in the public sector. Using a multi-level analysis that considers individual, organizational, and societal factors, the authors offer a comprehensive understanding of the issue. Importantly, they propose policy recommendations based on women’s own suggestions and aspirations.

1.6 Balancing Act: The Importance of Family-Friendly Policies for Work-Life Harmony

Economic empowerment through participation in the labor force is often viewed as a means to provide women with increased income opportunities. However, in practice, this can lead to a “double burden” (Rowlands, 1995) or “triple burden” (Hussain & Jullandhry, 2020) instead of improving their situation. In GCC countries, which are family-focused and community-oriented, working women struggle to find a balance between their job duties and household responsibilities, often without the necessary institutional support. Women’s position in their communities and families continues to play a significant role in their identity and empowerment, including in the workplace. Women’s employment decisions affect their families, making fertility a crucial factor in policies that link economic and sociocultural empowerment for women. Work-life balance and family-friendly policies are closely linked to women’s empowerment in the Arab Gulf States (Nasser, 2018). It is therefore crucial for policymakers to create workplace policies that support women and promote work-life balance.

Julia Babar, Rabia Naguib, and Maysaa Abu Hilal in Chapter 5, address the challenge of work-life balance in the context of Qatar, exploring the human resource laws and regulations surrounding maternity leave, childcare, and flexible work arrangements. The authors use qualitative data to examine the factors that influence employment decisions for both working and non-working women. The chapter highlights the difficulties women face in balancing work and life, including the impact of COVID-19, the importance of part-time work and flexible schedules, and the need for family-friendly policies to support working women.

1.7 State Feminism and Women’s Empowerment in the Arab Gulf: Examining the Gap

The Arab Gulf states have seen progress in women’s empowerment through the implementation of state feminism (Doumato, 2011). Prager (2020) describes state feminism in the UAE as a one-way policy that depends on political will to enforce laws promoting gender equality. Allagui and Al-Najjar (2018) reveal how women’s empowerment can be used as a government tool for national branding, using the case of the UAE. Sukarieh (2015) highlights the conflicting politics of women’s empowerment in Arab governments influenced by external actors such as NGOs, international organizations, and Western states, leading to the adoption of neoliberal discourse and the portrayal of women in positions of power to indicate political shifts and convey progressiveness. Similarly, Karolak (2013) emphasizes the political nature of female empowerment in rentier states, specifically in the case of Bahrain, through the implementation of top-down initiatives. Alotaibi et al., (2021) examine the role of information technology, specifically e-government, in empowering women in Saudi Arabia by removing the requirement of male guardian permission for certain transactions such as renewing a passport, applying for a driving license, or seeking employment. Government’s support appears to be a crucial factor in empowering women across the GCC countries. The role of political leadership in endorsing and supporting women’s empowerment has been well documented, but there remains a gap between women’s aspirations and the actualization of policies in this field.

Nada Fouad in Chapter 6 investigates this gap between public rhetoric and reality as perceived by women in the context of a welfare state. Through in-depth interviews with 20 Qatari women, the author identifies four areas where women still face challenges, namely freedom of choice, legality, inclusivity, and representation. The findings emphasize the need for locally driven policies that support the organic growth of community networks to facilitate women’s participation and expression.

1.8 Through the Eye of the Needle: A Regional Perspective

The economies and societies of the Gulf monarchies have undergone significant transformations due to their oil wealth, leading to a range of opportunities for their citizens, including education and healthcare services provided by welfare states. Women’s empowerment research in the GCC is unique due to the context of high-income rentier states, with a distinct social contract, an economy closely tied to international migration and nationalization policies, and a “development paradox.” These factors are considered barriers to female employment and career growth in the national workforce, along with other sociocultural variables (Ennis, 2019). Despite the similarities across the six GCC countries, the challenges and opportunities they face vary between states.

Melissa Langworthy and Rabia Naguib in Chapter 7 challenge the notion that the international agenda on women’s empowerment and the “universalization” of this framework is the only way for states to achieve women’s rights and legitimacy as modern states. Using a comparative analysis of public policies and gender data from the six Arab Gulf nations, the authors examine the circumstances of women’s empowerment in the Arab Gulf policy space. They argue that the perpetuation of neoliberal capitalist frameworks and Western-defined human rights strategies have reinforced orientalist discourses and ignored the cultural differences in the Arab Gulf region. The authors suggest that the international women’s agenda, which emphasizes neoliberal ideals, has overlooked the importance of the family and household in women’s economic pursuits. Instead, they present Arab Gulf policy frameworks as valuable strategies that prioritize care responsibilities, work-life reconciliation, and allow women to measure their life achievements outside of neoliberal terms.

1.9 Driving Change: Pathways, Challenges, and Recommendations for Women’s Empowerment in the Arab Gulf States

In the concluding chapter of this book, Ahmed Aref and Angela Fallentine offer valuable insights into women’s empowerment and public policy, based on the evidence presented throughout the book. They summarize the book’s main conceptual and empirical contributions and emphasize the importance of evidence-based policies that reflect local values, collaboration between stakeholders, and gender-specific research to achieve sustainable progress in women’s empowerment.

The chapter explores different pathways for increasing women’s empowerment, identifies the challenges that must be addressed, and provides recommendations for sustained engagement to promote women’s empowerment in the Arab Gulf States. Overall, the chapter highlights the importance of a comprehensive approach that addresses the social, economic, and political dimensions of women’s empowerment and recognizes the role of diverse actors in driving change.

1.10 Epilogue—Epistemic Healing: Reclaiming Women’s Empowerment in Islamic Sources

While many in the West view religion as a barrier to women’s empowerment, with religious institutions and teachings often accused of perpetuating patriarchal attitudes and practices, the situation is different in many Muslim-majority countries. In these countries, Islamic teachings are often seen as a catalyst for women’s empowerment, emphasizing the equal worth and dignity of all human beings regardless of race and gender. In the Arab Gulf states, Islam serves as a source of identity and a referential system that provides a framework for understanding and addressing social, political, and cultural issues. It shapes how Muslims interact with others, promotes values of compassion, justice, and dignity, and provides guidance on women’s rights and responsibilities. El Mandjra, a futurist, economist, and sociologist, has thoroughly written about the challenges of reconciling Western and Islamic values. He argues that the West’s cultural and political dominance over the Islamic world has resulted in a clash of values and a sense of cultural alienation among many Muslims who struggle to reconcile their religious and cultural heritage with the demands of modernity. Unlike Huntington’s conception of a “clash of civilizations,” El Mandjra advocates for a more nuanced understanding of the cultural and political dynamics at play and promotes dialogue and understanding between different civilizations.

In the epilogue, Rabia Naguib advocates for a model of women’s empowerment grounded in Islamic values and traditions. She stresses the importance of policy learning over policy borrowing and the need to recognize the unique cultural, institutional, and moral frameworks of the local context. The author suggests exploring the source of Islamic principles, Sharia’a, to gain a deeper understanding of women’s empowerment and develop pathways rooted in local values and traditions. She seeks to reconcile the cultural and epistemological tensions in the discourse on women’s empowerment and promote inclusiveness in policy-making through “epistemic healing” that empowers local women and men as agents of change capable of producing knowledge that is relevant and aligned with their worldview.

1.11 Overview and Future Directions

The book provides a comprehensive overview of the current academic research and governmental policies on women’s empowerment in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, with a specific focus on Qatar. It aims to present a nuanced understanding of women’s empowerment by including the perspectives of women themselves and examining the role of the public sector in empowering women. It also seeks to highlight the intersectionality between gender, religion, and identity, and how it affects the experiences and empowerment of women in the region. The authors conducted a mixed-methods empirical study using surveys and in-depth interviews with public servants and women from diverse backgrounds. Although the study mainly focuses on qualitative data, the authors recognize the importance of further research using quantitative data. They also acknowledge the need for similar research in other GCC states and comparisons with other regions to capture the contextual specifics of women’s empowerment in the Gulf states. Furthermore, the authors emphasize the need for evaluations of the programs and policies related to women’s empowerment in the GCC, as well as the development of regional indicators to accurately measure progress. Longitudinal studies tracking women’s empowerment over time are also crucial in assessing the impact of policies and interventions. Ultimately, the authors stress the importance of collaboration between researchers and policymakers to ensure that research findings are translated into practical solutions that can improve women’s empowerment in the GCC and beyond.