Abstract
This chapter is a historical study that examines Italy’s and Australia’s political, economic and strategic interests in each other’s regions. In doing so, it provides a brief account of Australia’s post-war stake in European integration (EEC and EU) and security (NATO) and its rationale. Similarly, it examines Italy’s post-1945 involvement in the Asia–Pacific and charts its slow efforts to rebuild a presence in this region following Italy’s defeat in the Second World War. Secondly, by concentrating on the last two decades, the chapter discusses how these two countries have envisaged their role in their respective areas of interest and what policies they have pursued to seek greater engagement. Finally, it focuses on how Italy could promote Australian interests in the European Union and how Australia could support Italian interests in the Asia–Pacific.
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Notes
- 1.
Gabriele Abbondanza, “Italy and Australia: Time for a Strategic Partnership,” IAI Commentaries 20, no. 87 (2020), 1, https://www.iai.it/en/pubblicazioni/italy-and-australia-time-strategic-partnership.
- 2.
On Fascist Italy see Giuseppe Spagnulo, Il Risorgimento dell’Asia: India e Pakistan nella Politica Estera dell’Italia Repubblicana, 1946–1980 (Firenze: Le Monnier, 2020), Kindle edition.
- 3.
Documenti Diplomatici Italiani (henceforth DDI), 10th series, vol. 2, doc. 589, Quaroni to De Gasperi, September 30, 1945.
- 4.
DDI, 10th series, vol. 6, doc. 386, Mingone to Sforza, August 27, 1947; doc. 802, Fransoni to Orsini Ratto, December 13, 1947; DDI, 10th series, vol. 7, doc. 264, Gallarati Scotti to Sforza, February 13, 1948; doc. 497, Gallarati Scotti to Sforza, March 31, 1948.
- 5.
Spagnulo, Risorgimento, chap. 1.
- 6.
Spagnulo, Risorgimento, chap. 1; Luigi Vittorio Ferraris, Manuale della Politica Estera Italiana, 1947–1993 (Bari: Laterza, 1998), 84.
- 7.
Spagnulo, Risorgimento, chap. 1; Ferraris, Politica Estera, 84.
- 8.
Ferraris, Politica Estera, 83–84; “Treaty of Friendship and General Relations between the Republic of the Philippines and the Italian Republic”, 9 July 1947, https://web.archive.org/web/20150904011729/http://61.28.185.135/treaty/scanneddocs/571.pdf.
- 9.
Ferraris, Politica Estera, 83–84.
- 10.
Bruno Mascitelli, “Italy and Australia: A Relationship Made and Unmade by Immigration”, Australian Journal of International Affairs 69, no. 3 (2015): 346.
- 11.
Ferraris, Politica Estera, 85–86.
- 12.
Valter Coralluzzo, “Italy’s Foreign Policy toward China: Missed Opportunities and New Chances,” Journal of Modern Italian Studies 13, no. 1 (2008): 6–7.
- 13.
Spagnulo, Risorgimento, Introduction and chap. 1.
- 14.
Spagnulo, Risorgimento, Introduction; Ferraris, Politica Estera, 83.
- 15.
Spagnulo, Risorgimento, Introduction.
- 16.
Ferraris, Politica Estera, 83–84.
- 17.
Eros Vicari, “Il Problema Afro-Asiatico e la Visita di Sukarno in Italia,” Africa: Rivista Trimestrale Di Studi e Documentazione dell’Istituto Italiano per l’Africa e l’Oriente 11, no. 6/7 (1956): 147–149.
- 18.
G. Mammarella and P. Cacace, La Politica Estera dell’Italia (Bari: Laterza, 2006), 206; Leopoldo Nuti, “Italian Foreign Policy in the Cold War: A Constant Search for Status”, in Italy in the Post-Cold War Order. Adaptation, Bipartisanship, Visibility, ed. M. Carbone (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2011), 35.
- 19.
For Italy and the Western Alliance, see Alessandro Brogi, “Ike and Italy: The Eisenhower Administration and Italy’s ‘Neo-Atlanticist’ Agenda,” Journal of Cold War Studies 4, no. 3 (2002): 32; Spagnulo, Risorgimento, chap. 1.
- 20.
Ferraris, Politica Estera, 185–186.
- 21.
Ferraris, Politica Estera, 196.
- 22.
Ferraris, Politica Estera, 187.
- 23.
That said, Rome maintained a strong interest in the Middle East, an area of strategic importance for post-war Italy. See Gabriele Abbondanza, “Time for a Strategic Partnership: The Scope for International Cooperation between Italy and Australia” in Italy and Australia: Redefining Bilateral Relations for the Twenty-First Century, eds. Gabriele Abbondanza and Simone Battiston (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2024), pp. 155–187.
- 24.
Spagnulo, Risorgimento, chap. 1.
- 25.
Ferraris, Politica Estera, 190–196.
- 26.
Coralluzzo, “Policy toward China”, 7–9.
- 27.
Nuti, “Search for Status”, 38.
- 28.
Coralluzzo, “Policy toward China”, 9; Ministry of External Affairs (henceforth IMEA), “India-Italy Relations”, https://www.mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/Italy_09-02_2016.pdf.
- 29.
Bela Butalia, “Indo-Italian Relations since 1947,” International Studies 23, no. 2 (1986): 112–115 and 134–135.
- 30.
IMEA, “India-Italy Relations.”
- 31.
Marta Dassù, “In Search of an Italian Policy towards Pacific Asia,” International Spectator 31, no. 3 (1996): 25.
- 32.
Coralluzzo, “Policy toward China”, 9.
- 33.
Nuti, “Search for Status”, 39–41; Dassù, “Italian Policy,” 23.
- 34.
Dassù, “Italian Policy,” 35.
- 35.
Dassù, “Italian Policy,” 24 and 35.
- 36.
Andrea Benvenuti, “Opportunity or Challenge? Australia and European Integration, 1950–57,” Australian Economic History Review 51, no. 3 (2011): 297.
- 37.
Benvenuti, “Opportunity”, 320. That said, the Marshall Plan and the Atlantic Pact also generated concerns in Canberra. For concerns regarding the Marshall Plan see David Lee, “Protecting the Sterling Area: The Chifley Government’s Response to Multilateralism 1945–9,” Australian Journal of Political Science 25, no. 2 (1990): 184–188. For concerns regarding the Atlantic Pact see below.
- 38.
T.B. Millar, Australia in Peace and War: External Relations since 1788 (Canberra: ANU Press 1991), 320.
- 39.
Outside the UK, Australian embassies were established in Paris (1948), The Hague (1950), Bonn (1952), Rome (1959) and Brussels (1962). See “History of the Department of External Affairs: A Study Group,” Australian Outlook 3, no. 3 (1949): 212 and 204.
- 40.
For some of these reasons see the file National Archives of Australia (henceforth NAA), A1838, 80/1/3/1 part 1, “Europe—General Relations with Australia—Australia Representatives”.
- 41.
NAA, A4940, C3368, part 1, Cabinet Submission 1183, June 26, 1961.
- 42.
NAA, A3917, vol. 9, Cabinet Submission 1188, July 1, 1961.
- 43.
Benvenuti, “Opportunity”, 297.
- 44.
Andrea Benvenuti, “Australia’s Relations with the European Community in a Historical Perspective: An Elusive Partnership,” Australian Journal of International Affairs 72, no. 3 (2018): 195; Benvenuti, “Opportunity”, 309–313.
- 45.
Andrea Benvenuti, Anglo-Australian Relations and the “Turn to Europe”, 1961–1972 (Rochester, NY: Boydell & Brewer, 2008), 112–149 and 163–183.
- 46.
For Chifley’s statement see NAA, A3318, L1948/3/34, Atlantic Pact—Australian Attitude: Statement by the Prime Minister, March 19, 1949. For his government’s concerns see T.R. Reese, Australia, New Zealand and the United States: A Survey of International Relations, 1941–1968 (London: Oxford University Press, 1969), 109–110.
- 47.
Percy Spender, “NATO and Pacific Security,” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 282 (1952): 114–118.
- 48.
Documents on Australian Foreign Policy (henceforth DAFP), vol. 21, doc. 47, Submission to Cabinet by Spender, February 15, 1951, https://www.dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/historical-documents/Pages/volume-21/47-submission-to-cabinet-by-spender.
- 49.
David Lowe, “Percy Spender’s Quest.” Australian Journal of International Affairs 55, no. 2 (2001): 193–194.
- 50.
David Lowe, “Mr Spender Goes to Washington: An Ambassador’s Vision of Australian-American Relations, 1951–58,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 24, no. 2 (1996): 284; Lowe, “Spender’s Quest”, 194–195.
- 51.
Benvenuti, “Australia’s Relations”, 197–198.
- 52.
DAFP, vol. 27, doc. 444, Whitlam to Armstrong, undated (March 1973), https://www.dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/historical-documents/volume-27/Pages/444-letter-whitlam-to-armstrong. On Italy see Gabriele Abbondanza and Simone Battiston, “Italy and Australia in the Twenty-First Century: Distant Connections or Close Partners?”, in Italy and Australia: Redefining Bilateral Relations for the Twenty-First Century, eds. Gabriele Abbondanza and Simone Battiston (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2024), pp.1–23.
- 53.
National Archives of the United Kingdom, PREM 16/300, Brussels to FCO, telegram 6051, December 17, 1974; National Archive Records Administration (henceforth NARA), RG 59, Central Policy Files, Electronic Files 1974, Brussels to Washington, telegram 10,050, December 20, 1974; Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, “Speech by the Prime Minister of Australia at the International Press Centre in Brussels”, December 18, 1974, http://pmtranscripts.dpmc.gov.au/.
- 54.
Benvenuti, “Australia’s Relations”, 197–198.
- 55.
Benvenuti, “Australia’s Relations”, 203.
- 56.
Historical Archives of the European Commission (henceforth HAEC), vol. 1978/9021, COM(78)205 final, “Communication from the Commission to the Council on Relations between the Community and Australia” May 24, 1978. See also annex 1 to COM(78)205 final.
- 57.
Benvenuti, “Australia’s Relations”, 203.
- 58.
NARA, RG 59, Central Policy Files, Electronic Files 1977, The Hague to Washington, telegram 5306, October 18, 1977.
- 59.
HAEC, Vol. 1978/9021, COM(78)205 final, “Communication from the Commission to the Council on Relations between the Community and Australia”, May 24, 1978.
- 60.
Philomena Murray and Andrea Benvenuti, “EU‐Australia Relations at Fifty: Reassessing a Troubled Relationship,” Australian Journal of Politics & History 60, no. 3 (2014): 439–441.
- 61.
Murray and Benvenuti, “EU‐Australia Relations”, 442.
- 62.
Philomena Murray, Australia and the European Superpower: Engaging with the European Union (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 2005), 136–160.
- 63.
Philomena Murray, “EU-Australia Relations: A Strategic Partnership in all but Name”, Cambridge Review of International Affairs 29, no. 1 (2016): 177.
- 64.
For consistency’s sake, this chapter uses the term “Asia–Pacific” even though, in recent years, “Indo-Pacific” has gained greater currency.
- 65.
Coralluzzo, “Policy toward China”, 13–20; Giovanni Andornino, “I Rapporti con la Cina”, in Rapporto sulla Politica Estera Italiana: Il Governo Renzi, ed. Ettore Greco and Natalino Ronzitti (Roma: Edizioni Nuova Cultura, 2016): 113–116, Giovanni Andornino, “Gli Orizzonti della Politica Estera Italiana”, Torino World Affairs Institute, undated, https://www.twai.it/articles/facciaafaccia-gli-orizzonti-della-politica-estera-italiana-in-asia-orientale/.
- 66.
Paolo Zucconi, “The Italy-China MoU: Opportunity or Risk for Rome?”, Foreign Brief, May 21, 2019, https://www.foreignbrief.com/asia-pacific/china/the-italy-china-mou-opportunity-or-risk-for-rome/.
- 67.
Lorenzo Mariani, “Il Pragmatismo di Draghi nei Rapporti con la Cina,” in Il Governo Draghi e il Nuovo Protagonismo Internazionale dell’Italia: Rapporto sulla Politica Estera Italiana, ed. Andrea Dessì and Ferdinando Nelli Feroci (Roma: Instituto Affari Internazionali, 2022): 57–61.
- 68.
Ministero degli Affari Esteri e della Cooperazione Internazionale (henceforth MAECI), “Rapporti con l’Asia Nord-orientale”, https://www.esteri.it/it/politica-estera-e-cooperazione-allo-sviluppo/aree_geografiche/asia/rapporti-con-lasia-nord-orientale/; “Roma e Hanoi Celebrano 45 Anni di Relazioni Diplomatiche”, AsiaNews, March 23, 2018, https://www.asianews.it/notizie-it/Roma-e-Hanoi-celebrano-45-anni-di-relazioni-diplomatiche-43434.html.
- 69.
MAECI, “Rapporti con l’Asia Meridionale”, https://www.esteri.it/it/politica-estera-e-cooperazione-allo-sviluppo/aree_geografiche/asia/rapporti-con-lasia-meridionale/. In 2021, Rome and New Delhi agreed to launch a bilateral strategic partnership in energy transition. See “Joint Statement on Italy-India Strategic Partnership in Energy Transition”, https://www.mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl/34447/Joint_Statement_on_ItalyIndia_Strategic_Partnership_in_Energy_Transition.
- 70.
See https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPD@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD and https://www.statista.com/chart/20858/top-10-countries-by-share-of-global-manufacturing-output/.
- 71.
The share of Italian exports going to this area increased from approximately 7.47 to 10.53% between 2000 and 2019. See https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/Country/ITA/Year/2000/TradeFlow/Export.
- 72.
MAECI, “L’Italia e le Organizzazioni Regionali e Multilaterali Asiatiche”, https://www.esteri.it/it/politica-estera-e-cooperazione-allo-sviluppo/aree_geografiche/asia/organizzazioni/.
- 73.
Gabriele Abbondanza, “The West’s Policeman? Assessing Italy’s Status in Global Peacekeeping,” The International Spectator 55, no. 2 (2020): 127–141.
- 74.
Marco Clementi, “Domestic Constraints, Governmental Instability and Italian Foreign Policy” and Donatello Osti, “Italy and Japan as Security Actors: Still Free Riding on the US?”, in Italy and Japan: How Similar Are They? A Comparative Analysis of Politics, Economics, and International Relations, ed. Silvio Beretta, Axel Berkofsky and Fabio Rugge (Milan: Springer-Verlag Italia, 2014), 269–272 and 343, respectively.
- 75.
Abbondanza, “The West’s Policeman?”, 130–131 and 133.
- 76.
MAECI, “L’Italia e le Organizzazioni Asiatiche.”
- 77.
Thomas Renard, “Partnerships for Effective Multilateralism? Assessing the Compatibility Between EU Bilateralism, (inter-)regionalism and Multilateralism,” Cambridge Review of International Affairs 29, no. 1 (2016): 24–25.
- 78.
European Council, “Indo-Pacific: Council Adopts Conclusions on EU Strategy for Cooperation”, April 19, 2021, https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2021/04/19/indo-pacific-council-adopts-conclusions-on-eu-strategy-for-cooperation/; Beda Romano, “La Ue Risponde alla Via della Seta Cinese e Va alla Conquista dell’Area Indo-Pacifico”, Il Sole 24 Ore, September 17, 2021, https://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/la-ue-risponde-via-seta-cinese-e-va-conquista-dell-area-indo-pacifico-AE84lNj.
- 79.
Philomena Murray, Laura Allison-Reumann and Margherita Matera, “Brexit seen from Australia: Pragmatism Should Trump Nostalgia”, Friends of Europe, April 25, 2017, https://www.friendsofeurope.org/insights/brexit-seen-from-australia-pragmatism-should-trump-nostalgia/.
- 80.
Philomena Murray, “Australia’s Engagement with the European Union: Partnership Choices and Critical Friends,” Australian Journal of International Affairs 72, no. 3 (2018): 216–217.
- 81.
Laura Allison-Reumann, “After Brexit: Australia’s Relations with the EU and the UK”, Global Affairs 5, no. 4–5 (2019): 567–568; Murray, “A Strategic Partnership”, 177–189.
- 82.
Murray, “EU-Australia Relations: Partnership”, 177.
- 83.
Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, “European Union Brief”, https://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/europe/european-union/european-union-brief.
- 84.
Stephan Frühling and Benjamin Schreer, “Australia and NATO: A Deeper Relationship?”, October 10, 2010, https://archive.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/australia-and-nato-deeper-relationship; Nina Markovic, “NATOs New Strategic Concept and Issues for Australia”, December 17, 2010, https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/BN/1011/NATO#_Toc280360894.
- 85.
NATO, “Relations with Australia”, August 25, 2021 https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_48899.htm; “Australia-NATO Relations”, undated, https://belgium.embassy.gov.au/bsls/relnato.html.
- 86.
“Australia Deepens Engagement with NATO, Appoints First Ambassador to the Alliance”, January 20, 2012, https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/natosource/australia-deepens-engagement-with-nato-appoints-first-ambassador-to-the-alliance/.
- 87.
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (henceforth NATO), “Relations with Australia”, August 25, 2021, https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_48899.htm.
- 88.
NATO, “Relations with Australia”; William Leben, “Australia and NATO after Afghanistan”, Australian Defence Force Journal, 2016, https://search.informit.org/doi/pdf/10.3316/ielapa.760670862404692. The other enhanced opportunity partners are Finland, Georgia, Jordan, Sweden and Ukraine.
- 89.
NATO, “Relations with Australia.”
- 90.
Latika Bourke, “Let Australia Join NATO; Summit Beings with Plea of Change”, Sydney Morning Herald, December 4, 2019, https://www.smh.com.au/world/europe/let-australia-join-nato-summit-begins-with-plea-for-change-20191204-p53glp.html.
- 91.
Leben, “Australia and NATO after Afghanistan.”
- 92.
For a detailed discussion on these issues see Abbondanza, “Time for a Strategic Partnership”.
- 93.
Abbondanza, “Time for a Strategic Partnership”.
- 94.
Abbondanza, “Italy and Australia”.
- 95.
Julie Bishop cited in Leben, “Australia and NATO.”
- 96.
Bishop cited in Leben, “Australia and NATO.”
- 97.
For bilateral contacts within the NATO partnership framework see Leben, “Australia and NATO.”
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Benvenuti, A. (2023). The Australian Interest in the European Union and the Italian Interest in the Asia–Pacific. In: Abbondanza, G., Battiston, S. (eds) Italy and Australia. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-3216-0_8
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