Abstract
Diagnostic ultrasound is the most commonly used imaging method in the field of obstetrics and gynecology to estimate various biometrics related to fetal development, fetal well-being, and perinatal prognosis. Until now, ultrasound measurements of fetal health parameters (i.e., amniotic fluid volume, biparietal diameter, head circumference, abdominal circumference, and others) have been made through a cumbersome and time-consuming manual process, and their accuracy depends heavily on the operator’s skill and experience. Therefore, there has been a high demand for an easy-to-use interface for collecting biometrics from fetal ultrasound images to improve clinician workflow efficiency. Traditional methods have fundamental limitations in automating biometric measurements from noisy ultrasound images that are often degraded by signal dropouts, reverberation artifacts, missing boundaries, attenuation, shadows, speckles, and so on. Medical imaging is experiencing a paradigm shift due to the remarkable and rapid advancement of deep learning technology, and ultrasound companies, including Samsung Medison, are making every effort to develop a new AI-based system for automated fetal ultrasound diagnosis. The reason for these efforts of ultrasound companies is that AI technology is expected to become a turning point in diagnostic ultrasound. This chapter focuses on fetal ultrasound, explains deep learning-based medical imaging technology, and hopes to help readers discover new possibilities and to provide future directions.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Alexe, B., Deselaers, T., Ferrari, V.: Measuring the objectness of image windows. IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell. 34(11), 2189–2202 (2012)
Arisoy, R., Yayla, M.: Transvaginal sonographic evaluation of the cervix in asymptomatic singleton pregnancy and management options in short cervix. J. Pregnancy (2012)
Baumgartner, C.F., Kamnitsas, K., Matthew, J., Fletcher, T.P., Smith, S., Koch, L.M., Kainz, B., Rueckert, D.: Sononet: real-time detection and localisation of fetal standard scan planes in freehand ultrasound. IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging 36(11), 2204–2215 (2017)
Beck, S., Wojdyla, D., Say, L., Betran, A.P., Merialdi, M., Requejo, J.H., Rubens, C., Menon, R., Van Look, P.F.: The worldwide incidence of preterm birth: a systematic review of maternal mortality and morbidity. Bull. World Health Organ. 88, 31–38 (2010)
Bennett, N., Burridge, R., Saito, N.: A method to detect and characterize ellipses using the Hough transform. IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell. 21(7), 652–657 (1999)
Berghella, V., Palacio, M., Ness, A., Alfirevic, Z., Nicolaides, K.H., Saccone, G.: Cervical length screening for prevention of preterm birth in singleton pregnancy with threatened preterm labor: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials using individual patient-level data. Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol. 49(3), 322–329 (2017)
Blencowe, H., Cousens, S., Oestergaard, M.Z., Chou, D., Moller, A.B., Narwal, R., Adler, A., Garcia, C.V., Rohde, S., Say, L., et al.: National, regional, and worldwide estimates of preterm birth rates in the year 2010 with time trends since 1990 for selected countries: a systematic analysis and implications. Lancet 379(9832), 2162–2172 (2012)
Cai, Y., Droste, R., Sharma, H., Chatelain, P., Drukker, L., Papageorghiou, A.T. and Noble, J.A.: Spatio-temporal visual attention modelling of standard biometry plane-finding navigation. Med. Image Anal. 65, 101762 (2020)
Campbell, S., Wilkin, D.: Ultrasonic measurement of fetal abdomen circumference in the estimation of fetal weight. BJOG: Int. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 82(9), 689–697 (1975)
Carvalho, M.H.B., Bittar, R.E., Brizot, M.L., Maganha, P.P.S., Borges da Fonseca, E.S.V., Zugaib, M.: Cervical length at 11–14 weeks’ and 22–24 weeks’ gestation evaluated by transvaginal sonography, and gestational age at delivery. Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol.: Off. J. Int. Soc. Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol. 21(2), 135–139 (2003)
Chalana, V., Winter III, T.C., Cyr, D.R., Haynor, D.R., Kim, Y.: Automatic fetal head measurements from sonographic images. Acad. Radiol. 3(8), 628–635 (1996)
Chen, H., Ni, D., Qin, J., Li, S., Yang, X., Wang, T., Heng, P.A.: Standard plane localization in fetal ultrasound via domain transferred deep neural networks. IEEE J. Biomed. Health Inform. 19(5), 1627–1636 (2015)
Chen, J., Lu, Y., Yu, Q., Luo, X., Adeli, E., Wang, Y., Lu, L., Yuille, A.L., Zhou, Y.: Transunet: transformers make strong encoders for medical image segmentation (2021). arXiv:2102.04306
Chen, L.C., Papandreou, G., Schroff, F., Adam, H.: Rethinking Atrous convolution for semantic image segmentation (2017). arXiv:1706.05587
Cho, H.C., Sun, S., Hyun, C.M., Kwon, J.Y., Kim, B., Park, Y., Seo, J.K.: Automated ultrasound assessment of amniotic fluid index using deep learning. Med. Image Anal. 69, 101951 (2021)
Coombe-Patterson, J.: Amniotic fluid assessment: amniotic fluid index versus maximum vertical pocket. J. Diagn. Med. Sonogr. 33(4), 280–283 (2017)
Drozdzal, M., Vorontsov, E., Chartrand, G., Kadoury, S., Pal, C.: The importance of skip connections in biomedical image segmentation. In: Deep Learning and Data Labeling for Medical Applications, pp. 179–187. Springer, Berlin (2016)
Dubil, E.A., Magann, E.F.: Amniotic fluid as a vital sign for fetal wellbeing. Australas. J. Ultrasound Med. 16(2), 62–70 (2013)
Espinoza, J., Good, S., Russell, E., Lee, W.: Does the use of automated fetal biometry improve clinical work flow efficiency? J. Ultrasound Med. 32(5), 847–850 (2013)
Feldman, M.K., Katyal, S., Blackwood, M.S.: US artifacts. Radiographics 29(4), 1179–1189 (2009)
Foi, A., Maggioni, M., Pepe, A., Rueda, S., Noble, J.A., Papageorghiou, A.T., Tohka, J.: Difference of gaussians revolved along elliptical paths for ultrasound fetal head segmentation. Comput. Med. Imaging Graph. 38(8), 774–784 (2014)
Huazhu, F., Cheng, J., Yanwu, X., Wong, D.W.K., Liu, J., Cao, X.: Joint optic disc and cup segmentation based on multi-label deep network and polar transformation. IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging 37(7), 1597–1605 (2018)
Kunihiko, F., Sei, M.: Neocognitron: a self-organizing neural network model for a mechanism of visual pattern recognition. In: Competition and Cooperation in Neural Nets, pp. 267–285. Springer, Berlin (1982)
Girshick, R.: Fast r-cnn. In: Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, pp. 1440–1448 (2015)
Hadlock, F.P., Harrist, R.B., Sharman, R.S., Deter, R.L., Park, S.K.: Estimation of fetal weight with the use of head, body, and femur measurements-a prospective study. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 151(3), 333–337 (1985)
Harrington, T.: Is the current measurement criteria appropriate for selecting women who require transvaginal assessment of cervical length in a low-risk population? Sonography 1(2), 39–43 (2014)
He, K., Gkioxari, G., Dollar, P. and Girshick, R.: Mask r-cnn. In: Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, pp. 2961–2969 (2017)
He, K., Zhang, X., Ren, S., Sun, J.: Deep residual learning for image recognition. In: Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, pp. 770–778 (2016)
Hoskins, P.R., Martin, K., Thrush, A.: Diagnostic ultrasound: physics and equipment. CRC Press (2019)
Huang, G., Liu, Z., Van Der Maaten, L., Weinberger, K.Q.: Densely connected convolutional networks. In: Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, pp. 4700–4708 (2017)
Ibtehaz, N., Rahman, M.S.: Multiresunet: rethinking the u-net architecture for multimodal biomedical image segmentation. Neural Netw. 121, 74–87 (2020)
Sergey Ioffe and Christian Szegedy. Batch normalization: Accelerating deep network training by reducing internal covariate shift. In International Conference on Machine Learning, pages 448-456. PMLR, 2015
Isola, P., Zhu, J.Y., Zhou, T., Efros, A.A.: Image-to-image translation with conditional adversarial networks. In: Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, pp. 1125–1134 (2017)
Goldenberg, R.J., Meis, P., Mercer, B., Moawad, A., Das, A.: The length of the cervix and the risk of spontaneous premature delivery. N. Engl. J. Med. 334, 567–572 (1996)
Jaesung Jang and Chi Young Ahn: Industrial mathematics in ultrasound imaging. J. Korean Soc. Ind. Appl. Math. 20(3), 175–202 (2016)
Jang, J., Park, Y., Kim, B., Lee, S.M., Kwon, J.Y., Seo, J.K.: Automatic estimation of fetal abdominal circumference from ultrasound images. IEEE J. Biomed. Health Inform. 22(5), 1512–1520 (2017)
Jardim, S.M.G.V.B., Figueiredo, M.A.T.: Segmentation of fetal ultrasound images. Ultrasound Med. Biol. 31(2), 243–250 (2005)
Jegou, S., Drozdzal, M., Vazquez, D., Romero, A., Bengio, Y.: The one hundred layers tiramisu: fully convolutional densenets for semantic segmentation. In: Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops, pp. 11–19 (2017)
Jha, D., Smedsrud, P.H., Riegler, M.A., Johansen, D., De Lange, T., Halvorsen, P., Johansen, H.D.: Resunet++: an advanced architecture for medical image segmentation. In: 2019 IEEE International Symposium on Multimedia (ISM), pp. 225–2255. IEEE (2019)
Jin, J., Dundar, A., Culurciello, E.: Flattened convolutional neural networks for feedforward acceleration (2014). arXiv:1412.5474
Johnson, J., Alahi, A., Fei-Fei, L.: Perceptual losses for real-time style transfer and super-resolution. In: European Conference on Computer Vision, pp. 694–711. Springer, Berlin (2016)
Kagan, K.O., Sonek, J.: How to measure cervical length. Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol. 45(3), 358–362 (2015)
Kehl, S., Schelkle, A., Thomas, A., Puhl, A., Meqdad, K., Tuschy, B., Berlit, S., Weiss, C., Bayer, C., Heimrich, J., et al.: Single deepest vertical pocket or amniotic fluid index as evaluation test for predicting adverse pregnancy outcome (safe trial): a multicenter, open-label, randomized controlled trial. Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol. 47(6), 674–679 (2016)
Kim, B., Kim, K.C., Park, Y., Kwon, J.Y., Jang, J., Seo, J.K.: Machine-learning-based automatic identification of fetal abdominal circumference from ultrasound images. Physiol. Meas. 39(10), 105007 (2018)
Kim, H.P., Lee, S.M., Kwon, J.Y., Park, Y., Kim, K.C., Seo, J.K.: Automatic evaluation of fetal head biometry from ultrasound images using machine learning. Physiol. Meas. 40(6), 065009 (2019)
Krizhevsky, A., Sutskever, I., Hinton, G.E.: Imagenet classification with deep convolutional neural networks. Adv. Neural Inf. Process. Syst. 25, 1097–1105 (2012)
Kurjak, A.: Donald School Textbook of Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynaecology. JP Medical Ltd (2017)
Kuusela, P., Wennerholm, U.-B., Fadl, H., Wesstrom, J., Lindgren, P., Hagberg, H., Jacobsson, B., Valentin, L.: Second trimester cervical length measurements with transvaginal ultrasound: a prospective observational agreement and reliability study. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. 99(11), 1476–1485 (2020)
Kwan, A., Dudley, J., Lantz, E.: Who really discovered snell’s law? Phys. World 15(4), 64 (2002)
Sun, S., Kwon, H.Y., Kwon, J.Y., Yun, H.S., Park, S., Cho, H.C., Seo, J.K.: Deep learning-based automatic measurement of cervical length in transvaginal sonography, preprint (2022)
LeCun, Y., Bengio, Y., Hinton, G.: Deep learning. Nature 521(7553), 436–444 (2015)
LeCun, Y., Boser, B., Denker, J.S., Henderson, D., Howard, R.E., Hubbard, W., Jackel, L.D.: Backpropagation applied to handwritten zip code recognition. Neural Comput. 1(4), 541–551 (1989)
LeCun, Y., Bottou, L., Bengio, Y., Haffner, P.: Gradient-based learning applied to document recognition. Proc. IEEE 86(11), 2278–2324 (1998)
Li, X.H.: Ultrasound scan conversion on TI’s C64x+ DSPs. Application Report SPRAB32, Texas Instruments (2009)
Lin, T.Y., Dollar, P., Girshick, R., He, K., Hariharan, B., Belongie, S.: Feature pyramid networks for object detection. In: Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, pp. 2117–2125 (2017)
Lin, X., Wang, F., Guo, L., Zhang, W.: An automatic key-frame selection method for monocular visual odometry of ground vehicle. IEEE Access 7, 70742–70754 (2019)
Litjens, G., Kooi, T., Bejnordi, B.E., Setio, A.A.A., Ciompi, F., Ghafoorian, M., Van Der Laak, J.A., Van Ginneken, B. and Sanchez, C.I.: A survey on deep learning in medical image analysis. Med. Image Anal. 42, 60–88 (2017)
Livne, M., Rieger, J., Aydin, O.U., Taha, A.A., Akay, E.M., Kossen, T., Sobesky, J., Kelleher, J.D., Hildebrand, K., Frey, D., et al.: A u-net deep learning framework for high performance vessel segmentation in patients with cerebrovascular disease. Front. Neurosci. 13, 97 (2019)
Long, J., Shelhamer, E., Darrell, T.: Fully convolutional networks for semantic segmentation. In: Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, pp. 3431–3440 (2015)
Looney, P., Stevenson, G.N., Nicolaides, K.H., Plasencia, W., Molloholli, M., Natsis, S., Collins, S.L.: Fully automated, real-time 3D ultrasound segmentation to estimate first trimester placental volume using deep learning. JCI Insight 3(11) (2018)
Lu, R., Shen, Y.: Image segmentation based on random neural network model and gabor filters. In: 2005 IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology 27th Annual Conference, pp. 6464–6467. IEEE (2006)
Luntsi, G., Burabe, F.A., Ogenyi, P.A., Zira, J.D., Chigozie, N.I., Nkubli, F.B. and Dauda, M.: Sonographic estimation of amniotic fluid volume using the amniotic fluid index and the single deepest pocket in a resourcelimited setting. J. Med. Ultrasound 27(2), 63 (2019)
Malinger, G., Paladini, D., Haratz, K.K., Monteagudo, A., Pilu, G.L., Timor-Tritsch, I.E.: Isuog practice guidelines (updated): sonographic examination of the fetal central nervous system. part 1: performance of screening examination and indications for targeted neurosonography. Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol. 56(3), 476–484 (2020)
Manning, F.A., Platt, L.D., Sipos, L.: Antepartum fetal evaluation: development of a fetal biophysical profile. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 136(6), 787–795 (1980)
Martin, D.J., Wells, I.T., Goodwin, C.R.: Physics of ultrasound. Anaesth. Intensiv. Care Med. 16(3), 132–135 (2015)
Martin, J.A., Hamilton, B.E., Osterman, M.J., Driscoll, A.K.: Births: final data for 2019. National Vital Statistics Reports: From the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, National Vital Statistics System 70(2), 1–51 (2021)
McLaughlin, R.A.: Randomized Hough transform: improved ellipse detection with comparison. Pattern Recognit. Lett. 19(3–4), 299–305 (1998)
Neubeck, A., Van Gool, L.: Efficient non-maximum suppression. In: 18th International Conference on Pattern Recognition (ICPR’06), vol. 3, pp. 850–855. IEEE (2006)
Ng, A., Swanevelder, J.: Resolution in ultrasound imaging. Contin. Educ. Anaesth. Critical Care Pain 11(5), 186–192 (2011)
Ni, D., Yang, X., Chen, X., Chin, C.T., Chen, S., Heng, P.A., Li, S., Qin, J., Wang, T.: Standard plane localization in ultrasound by radial component model and selective search. Ultrasound Med. Biol. 40(11), 2728–2742 (2014)
Noble, W.S.: What is a support vector machine? Nat. Biotechnol. 24(12), 1565–1567 (2006)
Ouahabi, A., Taleb-Ahmed, A.: Deep learning for real-time semantic segmentation: application in ultrasound imaging. Pattern Recogn. Lett. 144, 27–34 (2021)
Paladini, D., Malinger, G., Birnbaum, R., Monteagudo, A., Pilu, G., Salomon, L.J., Timor-Trirtsch, I.E.: Isuog practice guidelines (updated): sonographic examination of the fetal central nervous system. Part 2: performance of targeted neurosonography. Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol. 57(4), 661–671 (2021)
Pathak, S.D., Haynor, D.R., Kim, Y.: Edge-guided boundary delineation in prostate ultrasound images. IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging 19(12), 1211–1219 (2000)
Phelan, J.P., Smith, C.V., Broussard, P., Small, M.: Amniotic fluid volume assessment with the four-quadrant technique at 36-42 weeks’ gestation. J. Reprod. Med. Obstet. Gynecol. 32(7), 540–542 (1987)
Ponomarev, G.V., Gelfand, M.S., Kazanov, M.D.: A multilevel thresholding combined with edge detection and shape-based recognition for segmentation of fetal ultrasound images. In: Proceedings of challenge US: Biometric Measurements from Fetal Ultrasound Images, ISBI, pp. 17–19 (2012)
Prasad, D.K., Leung, M.K., Quek, C.: Ellifit: an unconstrained, non-iterative, least squares based geometric ellipse fitting method. Pattern Recognit. 46(5), 1449–1465 (2013)
Pu, B., Li, K., Li, S., Zhu, N.: Automatic fetal ultrasound standard plane recognition based on deep learning and IIoT. IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform. (2021)
Purisch, S.E., Gyamfi-Bannerman, C.: Epidemiology of preterm birth. In: Seminars in Perinatology, vol. 41, pp. 387–391. Elsevier (2017)
Redmon, J., Divvala, S., Girshick, R., Farhadi, A.: You only look once: unified, real-time object detection. In: Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, pp. 779–788 (2016)
Ren, S., He, K., Girshick, R., Sun, J.: Faster R-CNN: towards real-time object detection with region proposal networks. Adv. Neural. Inf. Process. Syst. 28, 91–99 (2015)
Ronneberger, O., Fischer, P., Brox, T.: U-net: convolutional networks for biomedical image segmentation. In: International Conference on Medical Image Computing and Computer-Assisted Intervention, pp. 234–241. Springer, Berlin (2015)
Rueda, S., Fathima, S., Knight, C.L., Yaqub, M., Papageorghiou, A.T., Rahmatullah, B., Foi, A., Maggioni, M., Pepe, A., Tohka, J., et al.: Evaluation and comparison of current fetal ultrasound image segmentation methods for biometric measurements: a grand challenge. IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging 33(4), 797–813 (2013)
Russakovsky, O., Deng, J., Hao, S., Krause, J., Satheesh, S., Ma, S., Huang, Z., Karpathy, A., Khosla, A., Bernstein, M., et al.: Imagenet large scale visual recognition challenge. Int. J. Comput. Vision 115(3), 211–252 (2015)
Rutherford, S.E., Smith, C.V., Phelan, J.P., Kawakami, K., Ahn, M.O.: Four-quadrant assessment of amniotic fluid volume. Interobserver and intraobserver variation. J. Reprod. Med. 32(8), 587–589 (1987)
Salomon, L.J., Alfirevic, Z., Da Silva Costa, F., Deter, R.L., Figueras, F., Ghi, T.A., Glanc, P., Khalil, A., Lee, W., Napolitano, R., et al.: Isuog practice guidelines: ultrasound assessment of fetal biometry and growth. Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol. 53(6), 715–723 (2019)
Schlemper, J., Oktay, O., Schaap, M., Heinrich, M., Kainz, B., Glocker, B., Rueckert, D.: Attention gated networks: learning to leverage salient regions in medical images. Med. Image Anal. 53, 197–207 (2019)
Sotiriadis, A., Papatheodorou, S., Kavvadias, A., Makrydimas, G.: Transvaginal cervical length measurement for prediction of preterm birth in women with threatened preterm labor: a meta-analysis. Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol.: Off. J. Int. Soc. Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol. 35(1), 54–64 (2010)
Srivastava, N., Hinton, G., Krizhevsky, A., Sutskever, I., Salakhutdinov, R.: Dropout: a simple way to prevent neural networks from overfitting. J. Mach. Learn. Res. 15(1), 1929–1958 (2014)
Stebbing, R.V., McManigle, J.E.: A boundary fragment model for head segmentation in fetal ultrasound. In: Proceedings of Challenge US: Biometric Measurements from Fetal Ultrasound Images, ISBI, pp. 9–11 (2012)
Sun, S., Kwon, J.Y., Park, Y., Cho, H.C., Hyun, C.M., Seo, J.K.: Complementary network for accurate amniotic fluid segmentation from ultrasound images. IEEE Access 9, 108223–108235 (2021)
To, M.S., Skentou, C., Chan, C., Zagaliki, A., Nicolaides, K.H.: Cervical assessment at the routine 23-week scan: standardizing techniques. Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol.: Off. J. Int. Soc. Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol. 17(3), 217–219 (2001)
Lingyun, W., Cheng, J.-Z., Li, S., Lei, B., Wang, T., Ni, D.: Fuiqa: fetal ultrasound image quality assessment with deep convolutional networks. IEEE Trans. Cybern. 47(5), 1336–1349 (2017)
Shi, X., Chen, Z., Wang, H., Yeung, D.Y., Wong, W.K., Woo, W.C.: Convolutional LSTM network: a machine learning approach for precipitation nowcasting. In: Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, pp. 802–810 (2015)
Lei, X., Oja, E., Kultanen, P.: A new curve detection method: randomized Hough transform (RHT). Pattern Recogn. Lett. 11(5), 331–338 (1990)
Yin, S., Peng, Q., Li, H., Zhang, Z., You, X., Fischer, K., Furth, S.L., Tasian, G.E., Fan, Y.: Automatic kidney segmentation in ultrasound images using subsequent boundary distance regression and pixelwise classification networks. Med. Image Anal. 60, 101602 (2020)
Yost, N.P., Bloom, S.L., Twickler, D.M., Leveno, K.J.: Pitfalls in ultrasonic cervical length measurement for predicting preterm birth. Obstet. Gynecol. 93(4), 510–516 (1999)
Yu, F., Koltun, V.: Multi-scale context aggregation by dilated convolutions (2015). arXiv:1511.07122
Jinhua, Yu., Wang, Y., Chen, P.: Fetal ultrasound image segmentation system and its use in fetal weight estimation. Med. Biol. Eng. Comput. 46(12), 1227–1237 (2008)
Yu, Y., Acton, S.T.: Speckle reducing anisotropic diffusion. IEEE Trans. Image Process. 11(11), 1260–1270 (2002)
Zagzebski, J.A.: Essentials of ultrasound physics. Mosby (1996)
Zahedi-Spung, L.D., Raghuraman, N., Macones, G.A., Cahill, A.G., Rosenbloom, J.I.: Neonatal morbidity and mortality by mode of delivery in very preterm neonates. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. (2021)
Zhang, C., Bengio, S., Hardt, M., Recht, B., Vinyals, O.: Understanding deep learning requires rethinking generalization. In: 5th International Conference on Learning Representations, ICLR 2017, Toulon, France, April 24–26, 2017, Conference Track Proceedings. OpenReview.net (2017)
Zhou, Z., Rahman Siddiquee, M.M., Tajbakhsh, N., Liang, J.: Unet++: a nested u-net architecture for medical image segmentation. In: Deep Learning in Medical Image Analysis and Multimodal Learning for Clinical Decision Support, pp. 3–11. Springer, Berlin (2018)
Zongwei Zhou, Md., Siddiquee, M.R., Tajbakhsh, N., Liang, J.: Unet++: redesigning skip connections to exploit multiscale features in image segmentation. IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging 39(6), 1856–1867 (2019)
Zhu, J.Y., Park, T., Isola, P., Efros, A.A.: Unpaired image-to-image translation using cycle-consistent adversarial networks. In: Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, pp. 2223–2232 (2017)
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by Samsung Science & Technology Foundation (No. SRFC-IT1902-09). Cho and Seo were supported by a grant of the Korea Health Technology R &D Project through the Korea Health Industry Development Institute (KHIDI), funded by the Ministry of Health & Welfare, Republic of Korea (grant number : HI20C0127).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Cho, H.C., Sun, S., Park, S.W., Kwon, JY., Seo, J.K. (2023). Artificial Intelligence for Fetal Ultrasound. In: Seo, J.K. (eds) Deep Learning and Medical Applications. Mathematics in Industry, vol 40. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1839-3_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1839-3_5
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-99-1838-6
Online ISBN: 978-981-99-1839-3
eBook Packages: Mathematics and StatisticsMathematics and Statistics (R0)