Abstract
India envisages energy diversification and transition to a cleaner fuel mix for the road transport segment, which contributes to about 75% of the country’s total CO2 emissions from the transport sector. In this pursuit, electric vehicles are pitted as a ‘one size fits all’ solution to all the problems posed by the current fossil fuel-based transport in the country. The current vehicle fleet running in India is dominated by the Internal Combustion Engine (ICE)-based products (powered by mainly petrol and diesel), and the trend is likely to continue in the near-to-medium term. Therefore, it is necessary to consider alternate fuels for ICE-based vehicles to achieve decarbonization in India’s road transport sector. This study discusses the ICE-based alternate fuel options (natural gas, auto-gas and hydrogen) in the light of 28 identified parameters under the 4A framework of energy security, encompassing technical availability, resource availability, infrastructure accessibility, price affordability, social acceptability and environmental acceptability. The 4A framework analysis is carried out to assess the large-scale deployability of the alternate fuel options. The learnings from a few prominent global experiences (compressed natural gas in Argentina, liquefied natural gas in China, auto-gas in Turkey, ethanol in Brazil, biodiesel in Indonesia and hydrogen research across the globe) have been imbibed in the mapping of the possibilities in the Indian context, keeping in mind the diverse functional uses of different vehicle segments within the road transport sector. Biofuel blends are deployable in the short term for all vehicles running on conventional petrol or diesel, whereas the expansion of natural gas usage is constrained by the lack of availability and accessibility beyond a few nodes. The energy transition in the freight segment would need a complete overhaul of the ecosystem since hydrogen appears to be the most prominent alternate fuel in the medium-to-long term.
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Abbreviations
- 2W:
-
2-Wheeler
- 3W:
-
3-Wheeler
- 4W:
-
4-Wheeler
- 4W-P:
-
4-Wheeler Passenger
- 4W-NP:
-
4-Wheeler Non-Passenger
- APM:
-
Administered Price Mechanism
- ARAI:
-
Automotive Research Association of India
- BEV:
-
Battery Electric Vehicle
- BIS:
-
Bureau of Indian Standards
- BPCL:
-
Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited
- BS:
-
Bharat Stage
- CBM:
-
Coal Bed Methane
- CCUS:
-
Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage
- CNG:
-
Compressed Natural Gas
- E&P:
-
Exploration and Production
- EBP:
-
Ethanol Blended Petrol
- FAME:
-
Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric Vehicles
- FCEV:
-
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle
- FFSHEV:
-
Flex Fuel Strong Hybrid Electric Vehicle
- FFV:
-
Flex Fuel Vehicle
- FSRU:
-
Floating Storage Regasification Unit
- FV:
-
Freight Vehicle
- GAIL:
-
Gas Authority of India Limited
- GoI:
-
Government of India
- GHG:
-
Green House Gas
- GST:
-
Goods and Services Tax
- HDT:
-
Heavy Duty Truck
- HPCL:
-
Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited
- HV-A:
-
Heavy Vehicle—Agriculture
- HV-B:
-
Heavy Vehicle—Bus
- HV-C:
-
Heavy Vehicle—Construction
- HV-M:
-
Heavy Vehicle—Municipality
- ICD:
-
Inland Container Depot
- ICE:
-
Internal Combustion Engine
- ICV:
-
Intermediate Commercial Vehicle
- IOCL:
-
Indian Oil Corporation Limited
- IPP:
-
Import Parity Price
- IRENA:
-
International Renewable Energy Agency
- IS:
-
Indian Standard
- LCV:
-
Light Commercial Vehicle
- LNG:
-
Liquefied Natural Gas
- LPDI:
-
Liquid Phase Direct Injection
- LPG:
-
Liquefied Petroleum Gas
- LPI:
-
Liquid Phase Injection
- M&HCV:
-
Medium and Heavy Commercial Vehicle
- MoPNG:
-
Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas
- MoRTH:
-
Ministry of Road Transport and Highways
- MMT:
-
Million Metric Tonnes
- MPV:
-
Multi-Purpose Vehicle
- NTPC:
-
National Thermal Power Corporation
- OIL:
-
Oil India Limited
- ONGC:
-
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation
- PLI:
-
Production Linked Incentive
- PM:
-
Particulate Matter
- PPAC:
-
Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell
- PSU:
-
Public Sector Undertaking
- R&D:
-
Research and Development
- RBI:
-
Reserve Bank of India
- RIL:
-
Reliance Industries Limited
- SDG:
-
Sustainable Development Goal
- SMR:
-
Steam Methane Reformation
- SUV:
-
Sports Utility Vehicle
- TERI:
-
The Energy Research Institute
- TTW:
-
Tank to Wheel
- UT:
-
Union Territory
- VRDE:
-
Vehicles Research & Development Establishment
- WTT:
-
Well to Tank
- ₹/kg:
-
Rupee per kg
- ₹/l:
-
Rupee per liter
- BCM:
-
Billion Cubic Meter
- g/kWh:
-
gram per kilo Watt hour
- g/mol:
-
gram per mole
- gCO2eq/km:
-
gram CO2 equivalent per km
- GW:
-
Giga Watt
- kWh/m2/year:
-
kiloWatt hour per square meter per year
- MJ/kg:
-
Mega Joule per kg
- MJ/l:
-
Mega Joule per liter
- MJ/m3:
-
Mega Joule per cubic meter
- MMT:
-
Million Metric Tonne
- MW:
-
Mega Watt
- psi:
-
pound per square inch
- TJ:
-
Tera Joule
- TMT:
-
Thousand Metric Tonne
- USD/liter:
-
US Dollar per liter
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Saurabh, K., Majumdar, R. (2023). Functional Use-Based Positioning of Conventional Vehicles in Conjunction with Alternate Low-Emission Fuels. In: Shukla, P.C., Belgiorno, G., Blasio, G.D., Agarwal, A.K. (eds) Renewable Fuels for Sustainable Mobility. Energy, Environment, and Sustainability. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1392-3_5
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