Integrated Spatial Ecosystem Services Valuation Approach with Community Participation in a Social Forestry Scheme

Abstract

In 2016, the Indonesian government established seven village forests in East Tebing Tinggi Sub-district, Riau Province. These social forestry schemes grant rights to the local society to manage communal land for ecological and livelihood benefits. To do this, they need to identify and value the products and services of the natural resource assets. This study conducts a rapid spatial assessment for an ecosystem service valuation with the participation of local representatives, demonstrating that the integration of a spatial approach and local participation is scientifically implementable for the village forest authority. Using the peat ecosystem services approach, the study estimates that seven village forests contain approximately 36.2 million tons of carbon stocks from the peat soil and peat forest biomass in the form of regulating services. Supporting services are evident in the government’s regulation of ecological conditions based on its designation of peat ecosystem function. The agro-ecosystem of sago plantations for food production offers provisioning services. Local residents and governments support the potential of ecotourism to enhance socio-cultural value via cultural services. All these services demonstrate how the environmental returns for both local livelihoods and a sustainable ecosystem are possible to achieve at the local level. However, support from governments and organizations is required to ensure that local communities can continue to hold the communal land right.

12.1 Introduction

Tropical peatlands have sustained the lives of millions of people in Indonesia. While Indonesians have not yet utilized organic peat soil as fuel, they have used various peatland resources by harvesting forest products, harnessing fisheries, and engaging in agriculture. How peatland is used is intertwined with ill-defined land ownership certification and conflicting land permits among locals, private interests, and government entities (Lye et al. 2003). Therefore, the issues of land ownership and natural resource management in peat environments have been critical among various stakeholders.

In 2015, the Indonesian government divided 24.2 million hectares of tropical peatland into 865 Hydrological Peat Units (or Kesatuan Hidrologis Gambut, KHG) (Menteri Lingkungan Hidup dan Kehutanan Republik Indonesia 2017). As mentioned in Chaps. 2 and 11, based on a 2017 regulation,¹ the Ministry of Environment and Forestry (MoEF) leads a peatland protection and management program. One of the requirements to protect and manage these KHGs is geospatial data, or maps. Since 2015, geospatial data of the KHGs has been provided in the form of a rough scale map and a more detailed resolution peatland map.² This KHG map contains information about the peat ecosystem and defines the purpose of peat management according to the ecosystem functions of either conservation “fungsi lindung” or cultivation “fungsi budidaya.” Based on the ecosystem function classification, the peat ecosystem provides numerous benefits, including carbon sequestration for ecological sustainability (conservation function) and agriculture and plantation production (cultivation function) for economic benefits (Osaki and Tsuji 2016).

Occasionally, local peat society, in the role of appropriator, bears the accusation of forest or peat degradation, although in reality, they desire the environmental returns from the natural processes of peat forests and peatland agriculture production to support their livelihoods (Angelsen et al. 2014). The concept of ecosystem services is introduced as a way to link the production and consumption roles of ecosystems and societies (Schleyer et al. 2017). Hypothetically, the flow of sustainable ecosystem services is strengthened by the active participation of local society in peat ecosystem protection and management on communal land.

The ability to identify the peat’s natural and agricultural assets allows us to place a value on the ecosystem services of a particular peatland area. As such, ecosystem services valuation serves as a tool to achieve environmental sustainability, social justice, and economic viability in the long term (Craig et al. 2002). Such valuation captures the ecological, social, and economic values of an ecosystem (Potschin et al. 2016). The use of spatial data, together with the involvement of local representatives in the assessment of ecosystem services, are key supports to the valuation. This study examines communal land that the Indonesian Government has already designated as Village Forest together with members of the local forest village authority (Lembaga Pengelola Hutan Desa, LPHD), who have been assigned to manage the village forest. A village forest is a type of social forestry in a designated area within a forest concession. The LPHDs were created by the MoEF and their members are both non-village administrators and those appointed by the local society. Based on a 2016 government regulation,³ the LPHD holds an important position in village forest management; it must be able to work horizontally with village level institutions and vertically with the MoEF.

Most LPHD members are aware of peat forest conservation and peatland management and have already cooperated with the government for the peat restoration program. These experiences and awareness could be an advantage to them in improving village forest management. As it complies with Indonesia’s peat and forest regulations, peat management based on ecosystem services valuation within social forestry areas has turned out to be a possible way for local environmentalists to hold their own bargaining power and work at the same level with the local authorities.

The aim of this study is to observe the valuation of peat ecosystem assets in seven village forests by combining the results of spatial analysis and field data provided by LPHD members. This valuation is based on the ecological condition of the peatland and all its remaining resources. The social forestry scheme itself is a means for the community to legally secure these resources and benefit from shared products and services without causing peat degradation, which complies with the ecosystem services program introduced by the government. In addition, the appointed community representatives, the LPHD members, have participated in fieldwork and discussions in the valuation process for the better social forestry management. Failing to combine the spatial analysis with the participation of LPHD members would result in an unbalanced peat ecosystem management. While spatial analysis provides thorough datapoints and reduces the need for a terrestrial survey, the participation of LPHD members in this study creates a synergistic benefit. Their local knowledge provides more accurate information on the forest, and in return participants gain information and confidence to manage their village forest.

Due to limitations in time and the level of scientific knowledge of the LPHD members, it is preferable that the results of the valuation are quantifiable values that are easier for locals to understand. As mentioned in Chap. 9 (Prasetyawan), measuring Willingness to Pay (WTP) can tell us the willingness of a community to conserve an environment that they depend on for income. In this study, the participation of the local community, represented by LPHD members, in the ecosystem service valuation process is a step in measuring such willingness. The LPHD members are chosen for participation because the focus of the study is on social forestry in communal land areas. By transferring peat ecosystem knowledge to the local peat society through geospatial data to develop spatial awareness that can be applied to decision making in village forest management, this study contributes to retention of the village forest right.

12.2 The Study Area

Unlike Pelalawan District, which is in mainland Sumatra, Kepulauan Meranti District is an archipelago administration area off eastern Sumatra Island, close to Malaysia and Singapore. The study area comprises seven village forests with 138,000 hectares of coastal tropical peatlands on Tebing Tinggi Island, which is one of the islands of Kepulauan Meranti District (see Fig. 12.1). These villages are home to a mixed ethnic population of 8418 people (Melayu, Java, Batak, and Suku Asli (or indigenous people), see also Chap. 11, Kasori); the majority are sago plantation smallholders (BPS 2017). A village forest is one type of social forestry right to communal land that is designated by the government through the national agrarian reform program. Recently, this program was provided with accurate maps derived from the Indicative Map of Social Forestry Allocation (Peta Indikatif Alokasi Perhutanan Sosial, PIAPS).

Fig. 12.1

Map of the seven village forests studied (A=Sungai Tohor, B=Sungai Tohor Barat, C=Lukun, D=Kepau Baru, E=Nipah Sendanu, F=Sendanu Darul Ikhsan, and G=Tanjung Sari)

In terms of the local history of social forestry establishment, local activists and NGOs struggled to evict the Lestari Unggul Makmur (LUM) concession from East Tebing Tinggi Sub-District beginning in 2009. The approximately 10,000 hectares of acacia plantations in the concession area had degraded the peat ecosystem, causing the water table to lower and culminating in the massive peat fire in 2014. After the massive fire, the struggle intensified and finally bore fruit. The village community in East Tebing Tinggi Sub-District obtained the LUM’s HTI (Hutan Tanaman Industri, Industrial Forest) concession area and converted the area into seven village forests.

Village forests in a tropical peat ecosystem involve multiple layers of land management: village administration, state forest designation and peat ecosystem function. Visualizing the village forests according to these multiple layers provides initial geospatial information about their status. Due to the separation of Kepulauan Meranti District from Bengkalis District, some of these villages are new village administrations. Therefore, the village forests are distributed unevenly across each of the seven villages. Sungai Tohor has the largest area of village forest, with 2940 hectares, while Sendanu Darul Ikhsan has the smallest area, with 650 hectares (Table 12.1).

Table 12.1 Basic features of the seven village forests

According to regulations enacted by MoEF to manage forests, each forest is designated a state forest status. Although all seven village forests of this study have been designated production forests⁴ (Hutan Produksi, HP), three have also been designated as conversion forests⁵ (Hutan Produksi yang dapat dikonversi, HPK). Basically, these are the production forest zones where any forest production by government or private entities is permissible. In addition to state forest status, each forest area is also designated as Peat Ecosystem Function (Fungsi Ekosistem Gambut, PEF). All seven village forests, with the exception of a small area of the Nipah Sendanua forest, are designated as a conservation function zone (due to the peat dome) and play critical roles to provide water to the surrounding agricultural land. Cultivation is either forbidden or limited in conservation PEF areas, while the government allows any type of cultivation in cultivation PEF areas.

When the seven villages assumed the right of communal land in the form of village forests, they had to face the challenges of forest management given the existing landscape. The peat landscape is a part of the geophysical structure of the peat ecosystem, which holds many of the important elements of peat soil formation (Burkhard and Maes 2017). The existing land use and cover conditions represent the tropical peat landscape in the village forest. The condition of forest density depends on its utilization. The vast majority of the village forests are secondary forests, except for the Lukun village forest, which is almost entirely undisturbed forest. Remote sensing captures the presence of dense tree canopy cover through the high density of the tree trunks per area and the high soil wetness index (Vickers and Palmer 2000). This existing forest condition combined with other land use and cover datapoints can provide holistic landscape information and help identify the spatial distribution of the remaining forest that needs to be conserved (Fig. 12.2).

Fig. 12.2

Land use/cover map of the seven village forests

In 2017, approximately 74% of the village forests remained forested (Fig. 12.2) even though the natural forest ecosystem has not totally recovered from the timber extraction in the Logging Forest Concession era (Hak Pengusahaan Hutan, HPH)⁶ and sporadic deforestation continues as a form of agricultural expansion (Sampurno 2019). Lukun has the most forest cover, with 2441 hectares of forest, or 83% of the total area, while Tanjung Sari village has the least, with 96 hectares of forest cover (Fig. 12.3).

Figure 12.3 depicts the different types of land use in the seven village forests. Although forest cover is dominant in each village forest, sago cultivation represents a significant proportion, among other agricultural production, in Sungai Tohor Barat, Sungai Tohor, Nipah Sendanu, and Sendanu Darul Ikhsan. The efforts to improve rural livelihoods affect tropical peat ecosystem resource extraction (Angelsen et al. 2014). In the northwestern parts of the Sungai Tohor Barat village forest, locals extract mangrove trees and sell them to wood briquette factories. The mangrove ecosystem may continue to degrade and cause sea abrasion, but these villagers must earn an income by extracting mangroves, because for the most part, they have very little production land. Still, the economic benefit from natural resource extraction is insufficient for household needs, while sustainability is at stake. Another land use management issue is occurring in Sungai Tohor village forest, in the area where the ex-HTI canal was built. Previously, locals planted 6–7-year-old rubber and sago trees on a group of local agricultural plots. In 2014, the opened canals caused excessive drainage and resulted in massive peat fires, damaging most of these plots. Those who did not have capital abandoned the damaged plots, while others gradually planted sago once the effects of El Niño diminished in 2016. These small-scale (less than two hectares) plantation systems depend on the smallholders’ capital and a stable peat ecosystem.

Fig. 12.3

Land-use distribution in the seven village forests

12.3 Methodology

12.3.1 Ecosystem Service Valuation Approach

In this study we adopt the concept of ecosystem services from the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA), which categorizes four types of services: supporting, provisioning, regulating, and cultural (Hassan et al. 2005; Hester and Harrison 2010). For the most part, beneficiaries only recognize the final services in a cascade of ecosystem services as quantifiable products (Burkhard and Maes 2017; Turner et al. 2008). This study, however, applies an omnidirectional ecosystem services scheme and analyzes a whole island as a unit of the ecosystem so that we can value not only the specific lowland peat ecosystem but also the surroundings that earn ecological benefits of the energy flow from the peat dome. Defining the supporting, provisioning, regulating, and cultural services may vary depending on the valuation approach.

According to the general concept of ecosystem services, each service is related to other services. In this case study, the supporting services generate other ecosystem services based on the peat characteristics, the flow of energy of material, and ecological conditions (Maltby 2009). To value regulation services, the calculation of potential carbon stocks targeted measurement of both tropical peat forest and the peat soil (Chave et al. 2005; Lal et al. 2013; Rudiyanto et al. 2018). To value tropical peat forest carbon stocks, the spatial assessment utilized high-accuracy LiDAR data and aerial photos that were suitable for integration with direct ground measurements (de Jong and van der Meer 2004). In this valuation of regulating services, the participation of LPHD members is needed not only to identify the trees, but also to measure and roughly estimate the carbon stock using a simple technique. The valuation of provisioning services targeted sago production as a potential food production, estimating values of existing smallholder sago plantations (Pratama et al. 2018; The Society of Sago Palm Studies 2015). However, the sago production estimation considered not only sago’s economic value to local community livelihoods, but also its ecological value as an aquatic plant. While both sago and tropical forests support the ecological sustainability of peatlands, human activity may contribute to the socio-cultural value of a peat ecosystem. Peatland eco-tourism is chosen to represent socio-cultural value and becomes an indicator of cultural services, which aim to enrich biodiversity restoration, improve aesthetic value, and educate about tropical peat ecosystems (Raymond et al. 2009; Schmidt et al. 2017).

During the valuation process, LPHD members joined the direct ground measurements and discussions as the service receivers and providers. By participating in this valuation process, the LPHD members gradually came to understand the potency of each service not only given its economic value, but also its contribution to improving standards of living in peatland areas. As mentioned above, community involvement in ecosystem services positions community members as appropriators, evaluators, and decision-makers in village forest management.

12.3.2 Peat Ecosystem Services Valuation Framework

In the development of a peat ecosystem services valuation framework, we began with geospatial and primary field data as the basic parameters of the spatial analysis. These two types of data are combined for analysis in the ecosystem services valuation approach. The high-resolution remote-sensing data derived from LiDAR and aerial photographs visualize the surface characteristics of peat, while the soil map provides below ground (BLG) data for estimating the peat carbon stocks. Ground measurements by LPHD members supports the acquisition of primary field data (Table 12.2).

Table 12.2 Measuring the indicators of ecosystem services (Burkhard and Maes 2017)

12.3.2.1 Carbon Stock Estimation

The above-ground (ABG) carbon stock assessment of forest cover used both LiDAR and aerial photo data⁷ to create models of forest volume. The remote-sensing data derived from airborne sensors was advantageous in that it offered better accuracy and spatial resolution.⁸ The estimation of ABG biomass also used 22 valid, direct plot measurements of forest areas that provided diameter of breast height (DBH) in centimeters and tree height in meters (BSN 2011; Darusman et al. 2009). This study uses an allometric equation for the measurement of the peat forest, based on the tree species found in the village forest (Brown 1997; Chave et al. 2005; Manuri et al. 2014). The plot areas for ground measurement reflected the accuracy of the estimation of the tree heights measured with LiDAR data (Mutwiri et al. 2017).

To acquire primary field data, the LPHD members were involved in ground measurements of the biomass estimation of the plots. In this step, measurements were conducted based on the Indonesian standard carbon-counting method, which is useful for the locals to learn so they may carry out future assessments independently.

To estimate below ground (BLG) carbon stocks, defining the accuracy of final data was dependent on the level of information targeted to be produced. For local forest management, we use an interpolation model of the peat depth to represent spatial information of necro mass (Eidsvik et al. 2015) in this study. The analysis of BLG peat soil carbon stocks considered the depth of peat soil and its characteristics together with elevation data and peat characteristics (KLHK 2015).

Here it is useful to note that because community representatives participated in a survey conducted by MoEF in 2015, they already had information about the general peat depth. The characteristics of the peat on Tebing Tinggi Island are similar to those of peat on Sumatra’s eastern coastal islands. Previous studies of the peat carbon content on these islands were also referenced for this study (see Dommain et al. 2011; Chadirin et al. 2015; Giesen 2015; Rixen et al. 2016; Murdiyarso et al. 2017; Rudiyanto et al. 2018). Instead of using laboratory data, the analysis of peat soil biomass used an algorithm and GIS (geographic information system) model to create a more practical estimation of the vast area of peat soil (Warren et al. 2012). For the estimation of peat carbon stocks, this study obtained recent data on the dry density and carbon content using measurements from a previous study (Haidar 2013).

Estimations of the ABG and BLG biomasses constitute both the value of carbon stock—which is substantial for the flow of energy and soil nutrients—as well as the value of conservation to reducing greenhouse gas emissions. These methods use scientific measurements and models that offer quantifiable values that are clearly understandable for the community.

12.3.2.2 Food Production Estimation

Aerial photos identify existing sago trees and quantify the estimation of sago production in the village forests. The quantity and quality of sago trees depend on the plantation system and peat habitat, which are only supported by sufficient water due to a lack of nutrients in the peat soil (Stanton 1980; The Society of Sago Palm Studies 2015). The blocking canals maintain the water table and keep the peatland bogged. The paludiculture system is well known to the locals as a better plantation system than monoculture.

Indirect measurement with LiDAR uses a three-dimensional distribution of point clouds to identify the canopy cover size and height of the sago trees. In addition to direct measurement of sago plantation production, sago plantation statistics and previous research were also used as a reference (Pratama et al. 2018), with verification via fieldwork of ten plots in two villages (Sungai Tohor and Sungai Tohor Barat). Verification from the indirect measurement confirmed the age of the sago trees. The participation of LPHD members, who had been well educated on identification and measurement, accelerated the verification process. In the future, they will be able to estimate the production of sago trees by high-resolution spatial data. The result of the integration of direct and indirect measurement methods resulted in a food production model based on the number of sago trees (in various conditions), which was then converted into an economic value based on the production. This spatial assessment of the valuation of sago production represents the initial value of food production as a provisioning service.

12.3.2.3 Examination of the Socio-Cultural Environment

The term value refers to the economic benefits, the extensive ecosystem and biodiversity benefits, as well as cultural, artistic, inspirational, educational, spiritual, and aesthetic benefits, or value(s) (Burkhard and Maes 2017; Schmidt et al. 2017). In the valuation of ecosystem assets, accounting for non-monetary units is seldom done, and it is even neglected. The valuation of cultural services uses participatory community scenario planning through interviews and discussions about the ecotourism model. The assessment for this study involved interviews and discussions with 20 local peat environmentalists,⁹ members of the non-governmental organization (NGO) Wahana Lingkungan Hidup (WALHI), and village authorities. Unlike the valuation of regulating and provisioning services, in the valuation of cultural services, the local community takes a greater part in the discussion; in this case, the community representatives from LPHD led the discussion with various ideas. This study suggests that the ecotourism model represents the socio-cultural value based on the strategic interconnection between attraction, infrastructure, and local participation. This cultural service is selected due to the development of peat eco-tourism by the local community.

12.4 Implementation of a Peat Ecosystem Services Approach

12.4.1 Ecosystem Services Valuation

The perception of timber collection as a source of profitable income remains for some locals. Gradually, shifting the paradigm of forest utilization toward conservation has paralleled the peat restoration actions and grassroots encouragement by environmental NGOs. However, the concept of ecosystem services delivering ecological and economic benefits has not yet been introduced to the local activists and residents. Governments and NGOs have introduced non-timber forest production (NTFP) as a means to fulfill economic household needs with the concomitant aim of conserving the forest for ecological benefit due to the vital role of the peat ecosystem. The local economy for sago production is growing on Tebing Tinggi Island due to market and ecosystem suitability (The Society of Sago Palm Studies 2015). Since 2015, local wisdom about the peat ecosystem has grown to consider the equity of peat sustainability and land utilization for sago production (particularly with the well-known paludiculture system). The preservation of forest and sago cultivation as food production has the potential to strike a balance between ecological and economic benefits.

While the peat ecosystem provides regulating and provisioning services, supporting services are determined by the spatial distribution of conserved and utilized peatland (Turner et al. 2008; Hester and Harrison 2010; Lal et al. 2013). Conservation of the natural peat dome benefits areas beneath it, providing sufficient groundwater for agriculture, household, and peat fire prevention uses. Although generally local residents only consider economic benefits, natural peat preservation has become a priority for peat ecosystem management. Government Regulation No. 71/2014 supports sustainability by categorizing peat areas into one of two functions: conservation (protection) or cultivation. The implication of this government regulation for the village forests is that it helps to determine the ecological benefits of most locations in the peat dome.

The locals in the seven villages have several strategies at their disposal for managing the village forest. According to the policy for forest utilization in production, villages can apply for a forest utilization permit (Ijin Usaha Pemanfaatan Kawasan, IUPK), a forest timber product permit (Ijin Pemanfaatan Hasil Hutan Kayu, IPHHK), a non-timber forest product permit (Ijin Usaha Pemanfaatan Hasil Hutan Bukan Kayu, IUPHHBK), or an ecosystem services permit (Ijin Usaha Pemanfaatan Jasa Lingkungan, IUPJL).

Due to a lack of bureaucracy knowledge, LPHD members were not aware that they, as decision makers, must follow the proper social forestry management process. Part of this process is to identify the natural peat assets and develop an appropriate program to protect and manage the forest for the community’s livelihood. In managing the forest, they face the following challenges: (1) they must establish the village forest program according to proper procedures and government regulations, (2) they must protect the remaining forest and avoid any deforestation by illegal logging or land grabbing, and (3) they must monitor and report on the status of the peat village forest. In this study, we focused on the planning process, which consists of assessing the natural assets and creating a communal land utilization plan. Although we have not yet considered the budget necessary to sustain the village forest right, we hope the method of ecosystem services valuation we introduced can support an assessment of assets and that the transferring knowledge about this method to the LPHD members can improve understanding and help them with planning and monitoring in the future. The government might revoke the social forestry right without a good planning and monitoring system by LPHD at any time.

12.4.2 Carbon Stock Estimation

Valuing ecosystem services by using spatial data and community participation not only enables visualization of the resources under management, but also develops the understanding of the process of village forest management. To value regulating services, ABG and BLG biomasses were estimated according to the model depicted in Fig. 12.4a. First, the points of return from LiDAR remote sensing estimate tree height conditions for the majority of the forest area. Next, a regression model uses each plot¹⁰ measurement within an area of 400 m² and applies it to the entire canopy.

Fig. 12.4

Estimation of carbon stock

The distribution of forest biomass and carbon stock related to tree height is shown in Fig. 12.4b, c. Areas with 80% canopy density dominate the village forests. The natural condition of the peat ecosystem with a dense canopy of tropical wetland forest is the best condition for preserving water in the peat dome, with a humidity level of above 60% to prevent fire. Mangrove forests with less than 70% canopy density are present in the northwest part of Sungai Tohor Barat village forest, close to the shore. These mangroves are unable to reach maturity stage due to their extraction for wood briquette production. The tallest tree heights were found in the Lukun village forest, where the forests are quite dense (Fig. 12.4a). The Nipah Sendanu village forest also contains trees with a height of more than ten meters, but they are less dense than in the Lukun forest. Approximately 2.53 × 10⁵ tons of ABG carbon stock was estimated in the Lukun village forest (Table 12.3), demonstrating its significant ecological value; in contrast, Tanjung Sari village forest had the lowest level of ABG carbon stock (8.08 × 10³ tons), with only a small amount of forest cover on the far eastern part. The area of limited forest cover in the Tanjung Sari village forest is the area that has been left unoccupied by locals, while the other parts consist of settlements and small-scale coconut plantations. A similar situation also exists in the Sendanu Darul Ikhsan village forest, where the forested areas are mixed with settlements and small-scale plantations.

Table 12.3 Estimated values of ecosystem services in seven village forests on Tebing Tinggi Island

In the plot-direct measurement of ABG biomass, community representatives from each LPHD were able to identify tree species and general characteristics. They identified 68 tree species across the village forests, with the majority comprised of Macaranga hypoleuca mucil (Mahang), Cratoxylum (Gronggang), and Parartocarpus spp. (Tenggayun). Gronggang is a tree species that can grow to a size of more than 50 cm in diameter by the age of 7–8 years. Punak (Tetramerista glabra miq.) hardly existed in the village forests as a mature tree, as it has a high timber value and price. Regardless of the distribution of tree species, this study estimated biomass using allometric measurements and tree height modeling. The tree height spatial data represents the distribution of forest density and will effectively help to create a program for reforestation or recolonization with a dispersal system.

The condition of the peat ecosystem depends on the composition of organic material in soil formation. The deepest peat soil on Tebing Tinggi Island was measured at 12 m, while in the Sungai Tohor village forest it was about 11 m. The LiDAR data provided a high-resolution digital terrain model (DTM) and was able to describe the micro-topography of the peat ecosystem. In traditional peat depth modeling, the peat surface is often displayed as a flat topography. The microrelief is often neglected due to lowland peat ecosystem conditions. Integration of the interpolated peat depth¹¹ and DTM allows us to determine the peat base height. According to the spatial distribution, 98.77% of the total forest area of the seven villages exhibited peat soil above the mean sea level (MSL) (Fig. 12.5), while the highest point on the peat surface was 11 m above MSL.

Fig. 12.5

Peat depth models in the village forests

The carbon sequestration model estimates the volume of organic material in the peat by calculating peat thickness and maturity. The village forests in Sungai Tohor and Lukun have more than 1.01 × 10⁷ tons of peat carbon stock in their necro masses (Table 12.3). Given the high porosity of peat soil and the slope of the peat surface, maintaining the water table, preserving water, and preventing carbon emissions during the long dry season become severe challenges. The strategy for maintaining the balance of ecological and economic benefits involves balancing the composition of peat forest in the peat dome and the sago plantations in the buffer zone. Another strategy is to construct canal dams to prevent water from flowing out to sea, and canal dams have been built via government funding, NGO aid, and community self-budgeting.

Due to the remaining forest condition, the seven villages support a small amount of ABG carbon stock in their forested areas. Tanjung Sari village exhibited the least amount of ABG and BLG carbon storage (Table 12.3). The average landscape-level ABG carbon stock was about 71 t C / ha in the studied village forests, whereas van Breugel et al. (2011) estimated carbon stocks to be 61 t C / ha in the Panama Canal Watershed, using similar allometric biomass models in a similar secondary forest. Although the forests seemed dense from the top, because they are mainly secondary forests with an average of 13.23 cm of DBH, they produce a small amount of carbon stock at the landscape level, while the BLG necro mass of the peat soil showed potential carbon stocks with a volume of 634 M m³. It is important to note here that these calculations of carbon stocks are not only the result of spatial analysis, but also the contributions of LPHD members to the fieldwork, and thus result in improved awareness of the potential benefits from such stocks.

To sustain the regulating services, local livelihoods must be supported with incentives for peat conservation and reforestation (Sathaye et al. 2001). The uncertainty of the carbon markets in Indonesia, especially through local governments with the REDD+ (reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation) scheme, has become a challenge for carbon creditors and carbon investors in terms of application to forest conservation (Djaenudin et al. 2016). Discussion of carbon stock values with community representatives and social forestry agents has motivated to start conservation schemes, with incentives from forestry government institutions and village fundraising (Sungai Tohor village has begun an ecotourism program).

12.4.3 Sago Production Estimation

The provisioning services represented by food production in the village forests do not provide the same services value as carbon storage. The composition of land use and local accessibility to the village forest differentiates the value of the sago plantation production. Unlike the six other village forests, sago plantations hardly exist in Lukun, as the forest is in a remote location more than 17 kilometers from the Lukun settlements. In contrast, vast sago plantations exist in Sungai Tohor Barat, Sungai Tohor, Nipah Sendanu, and Sendanu Darul Ikhsan, and most sago starch mills are scattered among these villages. Sungai Tohor Barat has 301.54 hectares of sago plantations, which are mostly owned by a landlord who also owns a sago starch mill on the shore. The 13 sago starch mills owned by local Sungai Tohor villagers also boost the sago production in the neighboring villages, including in the six village forests. Discussion with the local community and LPHDs about sago production as part of the ecosystem services program allowed by the government increased motivation to manage the production zones of the village forests. According to the social forestry regulation, the village forests are divided into conservation and cultivation zones. However, the community already understood that according to the peat ecosystem characteristics of the village forests, peat preservation is a crucial part of the sago plantation system.

In the planning process of each village forest, LPHDs have their own strategy to maximize the space for the community needs. For example, Sungai Tohor divides its village forest into areas for forest conservation and for food production, where the food production areas are designated for sago plantations. They proposed that some of the sago areas be designated for shared management while the status of the remainder is still being negotiated with the owners, especially those not from the village.

12.4.4 Cultural Services Identification

Placing value on non-monetary services shifts the motivation of the local community from economic benefits (for example from timber collection) to preserving the natural peat ecosystem. The most apparent result of this shift was the noticeable local interest in ecotourism. From the local perspective, peat ecotourism is a system that balances the peat biodiversity and water conservation with the sago (or any other agriculture) production, together with improvements of living standards.

The Sungai Tohor villagers, pioneering peat conservation environmentalists, have already established a 14.57-hectare site for ecotourism and research. In 2018, 30–40 visiting domestic and international researchers, NGO staff, members of the media, and tourists visited this site.

The Sungai Tohor peat forest ecotourism and sago education site is about 5 km from the local harbor, while the mangrove ecotourism attraction is 2 km closer (Fig. 12.6). Unlike the peat forest, the mangrove ecotourism area has attracted more than 100 visitors per month. The village government collects entrance fee revenue and uses it for infrastructure development, such as the road access to the mangrove site and maintenance of tourism facilities. Ecotourism has not yet been implemented in the other villages due to a lack of accessibility and the composition of land use; for example, in Tanjung Sari and Sungai Tohor Barat villages, most land is used for plantations and settlements.

Fig. 12.6

Sungai Tohor ecotourism site

The benefits of peat ecotourism include education via peat forest monitoring, improved living conditions, sago agro-ecosystem education, sago production, community involvement in peat conservation, endemic tree species planting, protection of canal water levels, and protection of the natural peat forest. Peat ecotourism also offers aesthetic value by allowing a mixed landscape of peat forest, sago plantations, sustainable sago production systems, and sago home industries. Although the ecotourism program of Sungai Tohor Village has not yet been formally established, the fame of the village as a peat research site and the eagerness of local environmentalist community have already demonstrated the benefits of peat ecotourism. The composition of the peat landscape, from the peat dome forest to the shore (Fig. 12.7), creates an ideal sustainable peat forest ecosystem, highlighted by a sequenced transfer of energy to sago food production.

Fig. 12.7

Composition of a tropical peat ecotourism model

This sequence begins with the peat forest in the peat dome, which intersects with the village forest (Fig. 12.7). This section consists of walking along the peat track routes and planting trees. At lower elevations, sago is harvested from the sago plantations. Local activities around the processing of the harvested sago take place in the sago starch mills and various sago industries—including home industries. Distribution and sales of sago is then conducted in the markets and at the shipping port. This geolocation introduces tropical peat village ecotourism, attracts visitors, and improves the locals’ standard of living with the enjoyment of the forest scenery, clear air, and abundant water for swimming and fishing. The sustainable sago production system together with the forest scenery and clean air provide aesthetic value, which encourages visitors to support the ecotourism program’s revenue generation.

Fresh air, birdsongs, forest cover, and abundant water provide aesthetic value to the location. The improved aesthetic value together with the sustainable semi-traditional sago production systems in turn create socio-cultural value. It is impossible to quantify these values in the spatial assessment, but for future valuations of cultural services, the spatial information, together with the monitoring of village forest management, will be able to supplement a qualitative approach. Biodiversity enrichment through tree planting and peat education in the form of research activity and ecotourism have also become part of cultural services in the broader scope of forest management.

12.5 Conclusion

The peat ecosystem service valuation conducted for this study was determined by spatial data utilization, community participation, and the coverage area of valuation. However, the purpose of this study was also to support the LPHD members in their village forest management by providing the services data. Based on the results of this approach, we agree with the prioritization of ecological values to conserve the remaining forest to ensure the sustainability of peatlands. However, trading carbon may not be a feasible mechanism to conserve the peat forest at the local village level. On the contrary, the persistent efforts of local environmentalists such as the LPHD members to conserve and enrich the natural peat biodiversity has attracted not only the Indonesian government, but also international organizations and researchers to support conservation action.

The participatory role of the community (mainly implemented via the LPHD members) is essential for residents to quickly understand the holistic character of the local natural resources. The LiDAR datapoints and aerial photographs were able to capture the natural resource assets using a simplified scientific method, which is useful for the initial valuation, and the LPHD can further evaluate ecosystem services using drone images. The spatial assessment with active community participation contributed to a more comprehensive local understanding of the tropical peat ecosystem. The integrated spatial assessment involved community participation based on local environmental knowledge. The keys to the success of assessment were its modest techniques, community participation, and quantifiable values.

The village social forestry scheme has accommodated the rights of use regarding state forest land. In the case of the seven villages of this study, the absence of customary land (Tanah Adat), non-contested village boundaries, and community control over the village forests are advantages for the village community in their management of the village forests. Conserving the natural condition of the 74% secondary forest cover in the seven village forests has become an ecological priority for the local communities, and ecosystem services can be considered a basis for sustainable management. The contribution of the remaining peat and mangrove forests to above ground carbon stocks varies according to each designated village forest. The tremendous peat forest volume in Lukun Village is quite valuable in this regard, with the other six village peat forests following behind. Preservation of natural forest in peat domes stabilizes the hydrology system, which is necessary for sago plantations.

The local people prefer the eco-friendly economic communal benefit as the basis for estimating the value of ecosystem services. The active community participation in the food production assessment suggested that sago could be considered a shared asset. The ecosystem service approach not only promoted economic benefits for sago plantation shareholders and conservation of the remaining forest, but also broke the perception that ecosystem services should be treated as a hindrance. The local community has realized that the socio-cultural value of cultural services is mainly non-monetary. However, some village communities have started to establish tropical peat ecotourism not only to reap educational, aesthetic, and socio-cultural values, but also to generate support for the local economy. Therefore, a social forestry scheme with economic, socio-cultural, and ecological considerations motivates the community to achieve sustainable peat forest management.