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Understanding Nation with Minzu: People, Race, and the Transformation of Tianxia in Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries China

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The Long East Asia

Part of the book series: Governing China in the 21st Century ((GC21))

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Abstract

How did China make the transition from a Tianxia system to that of nation-states? How does China reconcile itself as a civilization with the modern concept of nation-state? This chapter focuses on minzu, the Chinese translation of ‘nation’, and looks at minzu and its associated concepts such as nationalism, nation-state, and sovereignty with a particular attention to their applications outside the European historical and socio-political contexts in which they were formed. It takes a historical materialist approach to the study of idea and looks at the formation of a modern Chinese national unity in the context of twentieth-century Chinese revolution. It presents a story of entanglement, in which the meaning of nationalism in the non-Western world emerges through the long history of anti-imperial and anti-colonial domination. It demonstrates how minzu in Chinese becomes a non-hegemonic, and non-ethnic centric notion in the process of pursuing an anti-imperialist modernization.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Lucian Pye, “Social Science Theories in Search of Chinese Realities,” China Quarterly 132 (1992): 1162.

  2. 2.

    Rebecca E. Karl, Staging the World: Chinese Nationalism at the Turn of the Twentieth Century (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002), 5–9.

  3. 3.

    Dipesh Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000).

  4. 4.

    Lydia H. Liu, Translingual Practice: Literature, National Culture, and Translated Modernity—China, 1900–1937 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995), 3–10.

  5. 5.

    Xingtao Huang, 重塑中华: 近代中国 “中华民族”观念研究 (Reshaping Zhonghua: The Concept of ‘Zhonghua Minzu’ in Modern China) (Hong Kong: Joint Publishing, 2017), 70–73.

  6. 6.

    Guantao Jin and Qingfeng Liu, 观念史研究: 中国现代重要政治术语的形成 (Studies in the History of Ideas: The Formation of Important Modern Chinese Political Terms) (Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2008), 531.

  7. 7.

    Satakichi Kozyo, “土耳其论 (On Turkey),” Shiwu Bao (Current Affairs) 11 (1896): 24.

  8. 8.

    Yuyi, “民族主义论 (On Nationalism),” Zhejiang Chao (Tidal Wave of Zhejiang) 1 (1903): 3–7.

  9. 9.

    Qichao Liang, “国家思想变迁异同论 (The Transformation of State Theory, Similarities and Differences),” in 梁启超全集 (The Complete Works of Liang Qichao), ed. Pinxing Zhang (Beijing: Beijing Chubanshe, 1999), 459.

  10. 10.

    Liang, “国家思想变迁异同论 (The Transformation of State Theory, Similarities and Differences),” 459–60.

  11. 11.

    Qichao Liang, “新民说 (On the New Citizen, 1902),” in 梁启超全集 (The Complete Works of Liang Qichao), ed. Pinxing Zhang (Beijing: Beijing Chubanshe, 1999), 656.

  12. 12.

    Yuyi, “民族主义论 (On Nationalism),” 5; “国家学上之支那民族观 (View on Chinese Nation from the point of State Theory),” 游学译编 (Translations of International Studies), no. 11 (1903): 11–23.

  13. 13.

    Joseph R. Levenson, “T’ien-Hsia and Kuo, and the “Transvaluation of Values”,” The Far Eastern Quarterly 11, no. 4 (1952): 447–51.

  14. 14.

    Timothy Oakes, and Patricia L. Price, ed., The Cultural Geography Reader (London and New York: Routledge, 2008), 61.

  15. 15.

    Robert O. Keohane, “The Theory of Hegemonic Stability and Changes in International Economic Regimes, 1967–1977,” in Change in the International System, ed. Ole R. Holsti, Randolph M. Siverson, and Alexander L. George (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1980), 131–62; Robert Gilpin, U.S. Power and the Multinational Corporation: The Political Economy of Foreign Direct Investment (New York: Basic Books, 1975); Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984); Charles P. Kindleberger, The World in Depression, 1929–1939 (Harmondswworth: Pelican Books, 1987).

  16. 16.

    Elie Kedourie, Nationalism (London: Hutchinson & Co. Publishers Ltd., 1961).

  17. 17.

    William A. Callahan, “Chinese Visions of World Order: Post-Hegemonic or a New Hegemony?” International Studies Review 10, no. 4 (2008): 749–61.

  18. 18.

    Yukichi Fukuzawa, 文明論之概略 (An Outline of a Theory of Civilisation), vol. 1 (Tokyo: Fukuzawa Yukichi, 1875), 21.

  19. 19.

    Brett Bowden, The Empire of Civilization, the Evolution of an Imperial Idea (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2009), 27–28.

  20. 20.

    J. R. Seeley, The Expansion of England, Two Courses of Lectures (London: Macmillan and Co., Limited, 1914), 4–10.

  21. 21.

    Yukichi Fukuzawa, “蘭学事始再版序 (Forward for the Reprint of The Origin of Dutch Studies),” in 福沢諭吉全集 (The Complete Works of Fukuzawa Yukichi) (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1962), 770.

  22. 22.

    For the discussion of this idea, see: Urs Matthias Zachmann, “The Foundation Manifesto of the Kōakai (Raising Asia Society) and the Ajia Kyōkai (Asia Association), 1880–1883,” in Pan-Asianism, A Documentary History, ed. Sven Saaler and Christopher W. A. Szpilman (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2011), 53–60. Hirakawa Sukehiro, “Japan's Turn to the West,” in Modern Japanese Thought, ed. Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 30–97.

  23. 23.

    Fukuzawa, 文明論之概略 (An Outline of a Theory of Civilisation), 1, 36–39.

  24. 24.

    Songlun Zhou, “Wenming ‘Ruou’ yu Zhengzhi ‘Tuoya’: Fuze Yuji ‘Wenminglun’ de Luoji Gouzao (Civilisation ‘Joining Europe’ and Politics ‘leaving Asia’: The Logic Structure of Fukusawa Yukichi’s ‘Civilisation Theory’),” Ershiyi shiji (Twenty-first Century), no. 142 (2014): 29–41.

  25. 25.

    For a brief overview of pan-Asianism’s influence in Asia, see: Sven Saaler and Christopher W. A. Szpilman, “Introduction: The Emergence of Pan-Asianism as an Ideal of Asian Identity and Solidarity, 1850–2008,” in Pan-Asianism, A Documentary History, ed. Sven Saaler and Christopher W. A. Szpilman (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2011), 20–26.

  26. 26.

    This expression refers to the fact that Chinese character is the cultural lingua franca among the educated people in Asian countries such as Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and China. Regarding Chinese as the lingua franca in the anti-colonial movements in Asia, see: Jingwen Luo, “东亚汉文化知识圈的流动与互动——以梁启超与潘佩珠对西方思想家与日本维新人物的书写为例” (Transfers and Interactions among the Intellectual Communities of East Asian Chinese Character Culture Sphere: The Description of the Western Thinkers and the Meiji Restoration Intellectuals by Liang Qi Chao and Phan Bội Châu,” Taida Lishi Xuebao (Historical Inquiry) 48 (Dec. 2011): 51–96.

  27. 27.

    Quoted from Jeffrey M. Dorwart, “James Creelman, the “New York World” and the Port Arthur Massacre,” Journalism Quarterly 50, no. 4 (1973): 697–701.

  28. 28.

    Quoted from Shunbo Dong, “Lun Fuze Yuji dui Lvshun Datusha Shijian de Pinglun (Fukuzawa Yukichi’s Comments on the Port Arthur Massacre),” Sheke Zongheng (Social Sciences Review) 29, no. 7 (Jul. 2014): 107–09.

  29. 29.

    Xianfei Liu, “东游运动与潘佩珠日本认识的转变 (The Changes in Phan Boi Chau’s Understanding of Japan after the Movement of Traveling about Japan),” Dongnanya Yanjiu (Southeast Asian Studies), no. 5 (2011): 72.

  30. 30.

    “极东之新木爱罗主义 (New Monroeism from the Far East),” Qingyi Bao (The China Discussion), no. 2 (1898).

  31. 31.

    Qichao Liang, “进化论革命者颉德之学说 (Introducing Bejamine Kidd, a Revolutionary Thinker on Evolutionism),” in 饮冰室文集点校 (Collection and Anotation of Liang Qichao’s Works) (Kunming: Yunnan Jiaoyu Chubanshe, 2001), 424.

  32. 32.

    Liang, “进化论革命者颉德之学说 (Introducing Bejamine Kidd, a Revolutionary Thinker on Evolutionism),” 426–27.

  33. 33.

    “论帝国主义之发达及廿世纪世界之前途 (On the Development of Imperialism and the Future of the 20th Century),” in 近代中国史料丛刊三编·第十五辑·清议报全编 (Collection of Modern Chinese Historical Documents, Volume 3, Number 15, Complete Collection of Qingyi Bao), ed. Yunlong Shen (Taipei: Wenhai Chubanshe, 1985), 178–84.

  34. 34.

    See Connor, Walker (1984). The National Question in Marxist-Leninist Theory and Strategy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press), pp. 5–7.

  35. 35.

    All German, English, and Chinese texts of the Manifesto are based on Marxists Internet Archive. Chinese: https://www.marxists.org/chinese/marx/01.htm; English: https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/ch01.htm#007; and German: https://www.marxists.org/deutsch/archiv/marx-engels/1848/manifest/0-einleit.htm. Last access: 28 October, 2021.

  36. 36.

    Dazhao Li, “支那分割之命运驳议 (Against the Destiny of China Being Divided),” in 李大钊全集 (Complete Works of Li Dazhao), ed. Shiru Zhang et al. (Shijiazhuang: Hebei Jiaoyu Chubanshe, 1999), 479.

  37. 37.

    Dazhao Li, 李大钊全集 (Selected Works of Li Dazhao) (Beijing: Renmin Chubanshe, 1959), 109.

  38. 38.

    Li, 李大钊全集 (Selected Works of Li Dazhao), 105.

  39. 39.

    Li, 李大钊全集 (Selected Works of Li Dazhao), 119.

  40. 40.

    Li, 李大钊全集 (Selected Works of Li Dazhao), 120.

  41. 41.

    Li, 李大钊全集 (Selected Works of Li Dazhao), 12.

  42. 42.

    Li, 李大钊全集 (Selected Works of Li Dazhao), 280.

  43. 43.

    Xianzhi Pang et al., eds., 毛泽东年谱, 1893–1949 (The Annotated Chronicle of Mao Zedong, 1893–1949), 3 vols., vol. 1 (Beijing: Zhongyang Wenxian Chubanshe, 2002), 71.

  44. 44.

    Pang et al., 毛泽东年谱, 1893–1949 (The Annotated Chronicle of Mao Zedong, 1893–1949), 75.

  45. 45.

    Mao Zedong, “Xin Minzhuzhuyi Lun (On New Democracy),” in Mao Zedong Ji (Collected Writings of Mao Tse-Tung), ed. Minoru Takeuchi (Tokyo: Hokubōsha, 1983), 148.

  46. 46.

    Mao, “Xin Minzhuzhuyi Lun (On New Democracy),” 147–55.

  47. 47.

    Chunv Xiao, “显微镜下的醒狮派 (The Awakened Lion School under Microscope),” 中国青年 (The Chinese Youth) (October 1925).

  48. 48.

    Zhonggongzhongyang Tongzhanbu, ed., 民族问题文献汇编 1921.7–1949.9 (Collection of Documents on National Questions, from July 1921 to September 1949) (Beijing: Zhonggongzhongyang Dangxiao Chubanshe, 1991), 32.

  49. 49.

    “中国共产党第六次代表大会底决议案 (The Final Resolution of the Sixth National Congress of the CCP),” in 六大以来: 党内秘密文件 (Since the Sixth National Congress: Secret Documents of the CCP), ed. Zhonggongzhongyang Shujichu (Beijing: Renmin Chubanshe, 1980), 2. Tongzhanbu, 民族问题文献汇编 1921.7–1949.9 (Collection of Documents on National Questions, from July 1921 to September 1949), 96.

  50. 50.

    Tongzhanbu, 民族问题文献汇编 1921.7–1949.9 (Collection of Documents on National Questions, from July 1921 to September 1949), 88.

  51. 51.

    Zhou Enlai, “民族至上与国家至上 (On Nation Is Supreme and State Is Supreme),” 新华日报 (Xinhua Daily) (Chongqing) 15 June 1941.

  52. 52.

    Zhou, “民族至上与国家至上 (On Nation Is Supreme and State Is Supreme),” 新华日报 (Xinhua Daily) (Chongqing) 22 June 1941.

  53. 53.

    Mao, “Xin Minzhuzhuyi Lun (On New Democracy),” 148.

  54. 54.

    Mao, “Xin Minzhuzhuyi Lun (On New Democracy),” 147–55.

  55. 55.

    Stephen D. Krasner, Sovereignty: Organized Hypocrisy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), 73–104.

  56. 56.

    Robert H. Jackson, Quasi-States:: Sovereignty, International Relations and the Third World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 27. Jackson also uses the term negative sovereignty to describe a formal legal condition of a state enjoying the freedom from external interference. It is resonates with Krasner’s categorisation of the Westphalian sovereignty.

  57. 57.

    “Zhongguo Renmin Zhengzhi Xieshang Huiyi Gongtong Gangling (Common Programme of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference),” in Zhonggong Zhongyang Wenjian Xuanji (Collection of the Documents of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party), ed. Zhongyangdanganguan (Beijing: Zhonggong Zhongyang Dangxiao Chubanshe, 1992), 584. The Common Programme of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference was passed at the first Plenary Session of the Chinese People’s Consultative Conference on September 29, 1949.

  58. 58.

    “Zhongguo Renmin Zhengzhi Xieshang Huiyi Gongtong Gangling (Common Programme of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference),” 586.

  59. 59.

    “Zhongguo Renmin Zhengzhi Xieshang Huiyi Gongtong Gangling (Common Programme of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference),” 584.

  60. 60.

    “Zhongguo Renmin Zhengzhi Xieshang Huiyi Gongtong Gangling (Common Programme of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference),” 586.

  61. 61.

    “Zhongguo Renmin Zhengzhi Xieshang Huiyi Gongtong Gangling (Common Programme of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference),” 585.

  62. 62.

    “Zhongguo Renmin Zhengzhi Xieshang Huiyi Gongtong Gangling (Common Programme of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference),” 586 and 95.

  63. 63.

    Xinhua Net. “Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Xianfa (Constitution of the People’s Republic of China).” Xinhuanet.com. http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/2018lh/2018-03/22/c_1122572202.htm (accessed September 3, 2018).

  64. 64.

    Zhou Enlai, “Zai Yafei Huiyi Quantihuiyi shangde Fayan (Speech delivered to the Plenary Session of the Bandung Conference)” in Zhou Enlai Waijiao Wenxuan (Collection of Zhou Enlai's works on Foreign Affairs), ed. Zhonghuarenmingongheguo Waijiaobu and Zhonggongzhongyang Wenxianyanjiushi (Beijing: Zhongyang Wenxian Chubanshe, 1990), 112–14.

  65. 65.

    Zhou, “Zai Yafei Huiyi Quantihuiyi shangde Fayan (Speech delivered to the Plenary Session of the Bandung Conference),” 120.

  66. 66.

    Final Communiqué of the Asian-African Conference of Bandung (Djakarta: 1955), 161–69.

  67. 67.

    Guo Moruo, “Zhongguo Daibiaotuan Tuanzhang Guo Moruo de Fayan (Speech of Guo Moruo, the Chairman of the Chinese Delegation),” in Yafeirenmin Tuanjiedahui Wenjian Huibian (Collection of Documents of the Afro-Asian People's Solidarity Conference) (Beijing: Shijiezhishi Chubanshe, 1958), 187–91.

  68. 68.

    Guo, “Zhongguo Daibiaotuan Tuanzhang Guo Moruo de Fayan (Speech of Guo Moruo, the Chairman of the Chinese Delegation),” 190.

  69. 69.

    “Yafeirenmin Tuanjiedahui Xuanyan: Gao Shijierenmin Shu (Declaration of the Afro-Asian People's Solidarity Conference: An Open Letter to Peoples of the World),” in Yafeirenmin Tuanjiedahui Wenjian Huibian (Collection of Documents of the Afro-Asian People’s Solidarity Conference) (Beijing: Shijiezhishi Chubanshe, 1958), 219. An editorial about the conference in the People’s Daily adopts the similar line. See “亚非团结大会的伟大成就 (The Great Achievement of the Afro-Asian Solidarity Conference).” 人民日报 (People’s Daily), January 4, 1958.

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  1. Department of International Studies, Fudan University, Shanghai, China

    Zhiguang Yin

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Correspondence to Zhiguang Yin .

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  1. Department of Political Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China

    Zhengxu Wang

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Yin, Z. (2023). Understanding Nation with Minzu: People, Race, and the Transformation of Tianxia in Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries China. In: Wang, Z. (eds) The Long East Asia. Governing China in the 21st Century. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-8784-7_6

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