Keywords

1 Introduction

Sustainable development is a growth pattern that attempts to meet human needs while maintaining the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the short term but also in the long term (Spiess, 2008). The GCC states are dealing with significant maintainability challenges in accomplishing ecological objectives (Hayman, 2019). The large quantity of wastewater from big industries and increasing demand for energy presents many challenges to GCC states. Air quality is a significant part of personal satisfaction prompting maintainable improvement in numerous spaces of the world (Zaidan et al., 2019). The atmosphere is polluted by gaseous emissions from the exploration and burning of fossil fuels (Abulibdeh et al., 2019). Moreover, the GCC states have higher emissions of nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and volatile organic compounds than other countries (Waheed et al., 2021). On both the regional and national levels, air pollution control policies are now being taken seriously, and governments have taken significant initiatives to reduce pollution (Zafar, 2020). This chapter elaborates on these matters, reviewing the role of oils for GCC states’ development, its environmental challenges, and environmental initiatives.

2 Role of Oil in the Development of Arabian Gulf Countries

According to Moneef (2006), the countries of the GCC (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE)) are home to a large supply of fossil fuels and various types of minerals, and they are rich concerning Arabic and Islamic culture and history (Al-Saidi et al., 2019). The GCC countries’ economies are defined by their substantial reliance on fossil fuel exports (Al-Zubari, 2003). These exports have generated significant revenues that have resulted in high per-capita income levels and decent living standards. Oil and its relations have shaped Arab economies in one way since the Arab World’s independence and/or the foundation of nation-states, in one form or another (Elrahmani et al., 2021). The discovery of oil, as well as the awareness of its importance and potential for satisfying global energy needs, raised the strategic relevance of GCC states and aided their economic integration into the global economy (Sheik et al., 2019).

The worldwide political economics of oil, on the one hand, shaped the socioeconomic and political change of GCC states and their ties with major powers over the twentieth century, and on the other hand, the influence of the oil sector’s development on individual GCC state economies. In the last three decades, GCC states have seen tremendous social, economic, and political developments. At diverse ancient junctures, the oil quarter and the political economics of oil have performed a crucial component in such developments.

GCC states had 667 billion barrels of oil reserves by the end of 2005 (Hammad et al., 2019). The GCC oil-exporting states produced 25 million barrels of oil every day and 30 billion cubic ft according to the day of fuel line, or 303 billion cubic meters, in 2005, accounting for 32% and 12% of worldwide oil and fuel line production, respectively (Fatima et al., 2021). The contribution of oil to development has not been confined to the economies of GCC states oil exporters. Admittedly, it has spilled over to different GCC states’ economies (Uyar et al., 2019). Furthermore, whereby during the different oil booms and among the distinct economies of this sub-group of GCC states, methods have differed. Oil’s contribution to development has spread to other Arab economies, with transmission mechanisms varying throughout different oil booms and among different Arab non-oil-exporting countries. Contributions have been made through four channels: workers’ remittances, tourism flows, bilateral and multilateral aid, and investment flows, and fiscal and external positions (Khan & Fernandez-Carag, 2016).

Most of the world energy outlooks show that world oil consumption is projected to increase by an annual average of 1.5 mbd by 2025 (Mahmood & Furqan, 2021). Total cumulative investments in the oil and gas chains in Arab countries were anticipated to be $183 billion by 2010—through national oil corporations, FDI, or both (Al-Naser & Hamdan, 2021). These investments are expected to be carried out in an environment of relatively higher oil prices, improved prospects for increased oil and gas exports, and a favorable business climate in the countries concerned.

3 Environmental Challenges in the Arabian Gulf Countries

GCC states like Bahrain, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Kuwait, and the UAE are encountering different environmental challenges, such as:

3.1 Climate Change

This is the changing of temperature and weather patterns in a place, and is the result of the cumulative activities of human beings. It also presents a new and genuine danger of extreme ecological, financial, political, and security impacts in the GCC states (Awartani & Maghyereh, 2013). Climate change and its potential physical and social repercussions are anticipated to worsen this susceptibility, leading to large-scale instability in an area that is already vulnerable to several non-climate stresses (Salahuddin & Gow, 2014). Climate change is anticipated to exacerbate water scarcity by acting as a risk multiplier (Al-Faris, 2002). The food security in the region is under threat due to water scarcity. This problem may reduce agricultural productivity and could present problems for human health and economic development.

Extreme temperatures are likely to worsen health hazards as a result of climate change (Bhutto et al., 2014). High and low ambient temperatures have been linked to an elevated risk of short-term mortality in numerous studies, but little is known about these dangers in Kuwait and the Gulf region. Therefore, it is evident that climate change has already become a major global challenge for the twenty-first century (Mabry et al., 2010). According to data from the IPCC (2007), between 1970 and 2004, the Arab region witnessed an unequal increase in surface air temperature ranging from 0.2 degrees to 2.0 degrees (Al Shidi et al., 2016). Also, most Arab nations, especially those arranged in the Middle East, are likely to face water-related issues and the knock-on effects of environmental change.

The region’s emissions of Greenhouse Gases (GHG) are generally small in absolute terms (less than 5% of the world’s total), and in per capita terms (Alharbi & Csala, 2021). However, the amount of these emissions and, as a result, the region’s contribution to climate change differs by country, particularly among oil-producing countries shouldering the biggest share (74% of the region’s total) (Darwish, 2020). Moreover, at + 88%, the growth of CO2 emissions in the Middle East and North Africa was the third largest in the world in 1990–2004 and more than 3 times faster than the world’s average; most of that growth came from fuel combustion (Elasha, 2010).

Environmental change is likewise expected to expand the frequency and force of severe climatic conditions and related risks presenting more individuals to hazardous circumstances and prompting more serious occurrences, such as droughts, floods, hurricanes, and dust storms, all examples of natural disasters (IPCC, 2007). The present circumstance might disturb the GCC states’ weakness to cataclysmic events, which incorporate dry season and food deficiency, floods, dusty weather, and pests’ attacks (Al-Maamary et al., 2017). Moreover, due to climate change, most of the region is expected to remain very hot under climate change scenarios (Al Shidi et al., 2016). Furthermore, climate change may put stress on those areas, which are more hospitable, such as the Mediterranean basin (Reiche, 2010). As for the grasslands of the Sahel, a band of semiarid land running across the continent south of the Sahara Desert, they are already shrinking (Hassen & El Bilali, 2019). The climate models can cause hotter temperatures and less precipitation for this locale under a dangerous atmospheric deviation, land debasement, desertification, and biodiversity are relied upon to speed up (Elasha, 2010).

Agricultural production and food security are closely linked to the availability of water. Climate change is expected to affect food security through its impact on agriculture and food production systems. At the global level, aggregate agricultural output potential will be little affected by climate change, with significant variations between regions (Waheed et al., 2021). The majority of GCC states are considered among the world’s most water-scarce, and in many places demand for water already exceeds supply (Al Shidi et al., 2016). Higher temperatures and less rainfall will lower river and streamflow, slow the pace of aquifer recharge, and make the region more desert (Okedu et al., 2019). These changes will have a variety of consequences, including impacts on agriculture, energy, and food security.

In Kuwait, the impact of environmental change was examined by high goal (36, 12, and 4 km lattice separating) dynamic downscaling from the Community Climate System Model CCSM4 utilizing the WRF (Weather Research and Forecasting) model (Omidvarborna et al., 2018). The downscaling results were first verified by comparing NCEP model outputs to observational data from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (Atalay et al., 2016). The worldwide environmental change dynamic downscaling model was run utilizing WRF provincial environment model reenactments (2000–2010) and future projections (2050–2060). By mid-century, regional model estimates of the average maximum surface temperature in midsummer in Kuwait forecast an increase from 1 °C to 3 °C (Al-Saidi & Saliba, 2019).

Drought will become more frequent and have a greater impact in the region as temperatures rise, putting water resources and fertile land at risk. Drought frequency has already increased in Algeria, Morocco, Syria, and Tunisia, according to this report (Krupa et al., 2019). Droughts in Jordan and Syria have been among the worst in decades (Abulibdeh et al., 2019). In addition, increased precipitation variability and water resource availability directly related to climate change affects a number of countries in the region (Ahmed et al., 2015). A warmer climate brings with it increased climate variability, a higher risk of both floods and droughts, and exacerbates the already precarious situation created by chronic water scarcity faced by most Arab countries (Michaelowa & Michaelowa, 2015).

3.2 Oil Spills

In simple words, an oil spill is the leakage or mixing up of oil in seas or other water bodies, an occurrence that causes severe risks to marine life. An oil spill is an environmental disaster that occurs due to the release of liquid petroleum into the environment (Awartani & Maghyereh, 2013). This might happen by mistake, on purpose, or as a result of regular human actions. Oil spills can have a variety of origins and sources. The natural seeps of oil are found to regularly occur in the Gulf countries (Almazroui, 2020), mostly at production sites (drilling and refineries), storage sites (owing to container leakage), and transportation sites (pipelines, trucks, and so on) (Michaelowa & Michaelowa, 2015). Minor spills, medium spills, major spills, and disasters are the four primary categories of oil spills. These are categorized based on discharge quantity of oil on land, coastal or offshore waters. The damaging impact and distortion of the environment due to oil spills is a major concern of discussion.

Marine, land, and groundwater are being affected by the oil spills, resulting in land and seawater pollution. Oil spills have the potential to have a significant economic impact on coastal operations and those who exploit the sea’s resources (Aleisa & Al-Zubari, 2017). Damages to the marine environment are caused primarily by the chemical and physical properties of oil creating a nuisance and hazardous conditions (Taleb & Pitts, 2009). The environmental impacts of an oil spill may differ due to factors that affect the distribution and hydrocarbons from petroleum, particularly their weathering and persistence and consequently, their bioavailability. In open bodies of water, currents and diffusion can decrease concentrations of contaminants rapidly. At shorelines, however, this is more difficult, especially in low-energy environments, e.g., some sandy beaches, estuaries, marshes, and protected coves (Indraganti & Boussaa, 2018).

The United Arab Emirates’ water environment around the Arabian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman is being exposed to increasing amounts of oil, which may create human health problems (Mahmood & Furqan, 2021). Surfaces of water spread with oil, forming a smooth and slippery surface called slick. An oil spill has a toxic impact on aquatic animals and damages their food resources and habitats. Slick forms a thin coating on the bird’s feathers which loses its insulating properties and results in freezing death (Lahn & Preston, 2013). By lowering oxygen levels in the water, the amount of oxygen dissolving will also be reduced, which is an important factor for marine life..

After a collision between the 57,211 dwt tanker ‘Baynunah’ and the 293,238 dwt supertanker ‘Seki’, a quantity (16,000t) of Iranian crude oil escaped into the Gulf of Oman 9.5 miles outside the Al-Fujairah port entrance on March 31, 1994 (Hammad et al., 2019). Clean-up efforts, which began within one hour and forty minutes of the incident, were only able to remove 2000 tons of oil from the sea and failed to contain the spill (Dawoud, 2017). After four days, the drifting oil reached the United Arab Emirates’ beach, contaminating nearly 20 km of coastline (Gerged et al., 2021). This brought about the disturbance of the fishing business and a decrease in scuba plunging for the travel industry (Marine Pollution Bulletin Report, 1994).

The main parts of the oil area unit are acyclic and aromatic hydrocarbons. Lower-molecular-weight aromatics such as benzol, toluene, and xylene—are volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and evaporate for hours once the oil reaches the surface (Siddiqi et al., 2021). Volatile organic compounds will cause metabolic process irritation and central system (CNS) depression. Benzol is thought to cause leukemia in humans, and dissolvent could be a recognized agent at high doses. Higher-molecular-weight chemicals like hydrocarbon evaporate a lot slower (Cochrane & Amery, 2017). Hydrocarbon is listed by the National Pharmacological Medicine Program as reasonably anticipated to cause cancer in humans supported modality neuroblastomas, nasal tumors, and respiratory organ cancers in animals (Alsamara et al., 2018; Solomon & Janssen, 2010).

3.3 Air Pollution

All man-created discharges into the air can be called air pollution since they adjust the substance arrangement of the regular environment. Air pollution can also be defined as an increase in worldwide concentrations of greenhouse gases CO2, CH4, and N2O (Al-Mulali & Tang, 2013). As long as they are inert in the lowest region of the atmosphere, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) emitted by humans were once considered safe.. However, once these chemicals enter the layer, ultraviolet will convert them into extremely reactive species that may have a devastating result on stratospheric gas (Salahuddin & Gow, 2014). Similarly, greenhouse gas emissions from combustion processes were thought of as being safe as they are not nephrotoxic, however, the long-term accumulation of greenhouse gas within the atmosphere could result in climate change, which could then be harmful to humans and the ecosystem (Reiche, 2010).

In the UAE, with the increase in the number of inhabitants, the number of vehicles in operation also increases, which is the main cause of air pollution (Hassine & Harrathi, 2017). Air pollution is an important risk factor for the global burden of a wide range of diseases, and can cause various respiratory and cardiovascular problems but, more recently, it has also been reported that air pollution may cause insulin resistance and diabetes mellitus (Mabry et al., 2010). People in urban areas are more likely to be exposed to polluted air which is believed to be a factor in lung function impairment (Al-Mulali & Tang, 2013). For traffic-related pollutants, gases, nitrogen dioxide, cigarette smoke, and particulate matter, the link between air pollution and diabetes is stronger.

In 2016, Radaideh mentioned that air pollution in Saudi Arabia is now recognized as a significant environmental impact of intensive anthropogenic activities (Destek & Okumus, 2019). Urban areas that have heavy traffic generate more precursor emissions, which in turn increase O3 emissions. Saudi Arabia makes up about 1.1% of the world’s energy consumption (Amoatey, 2020). Saudi Arabia’s carbon emissions from the transport sector have jumped in the past 40 years from 3.29 million metric tons in 1971 to 104.42 million metric tons in 2010. According to experts, long-term health effects from air pollution include heart disease, lung cancer, and respiratory diseases such as emphysema (Al-Maamary et al., 2017). Air pollution may also cause semi-permanent injury to people’s nerves, brain, kidneys, liver, and alternative organs (Aleisa & Al-Zubari, 2017).

3.4 Marine and Coastal Environment

According to Tolba and Saab (2008), stretching from the Atlantic to the Indian ocean, and including the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, and the Gulf, Arab countries have over 30,000 km of coastal line, 18,000 km of which are populated areas. The delicate marine and beachfront climate of the Arab district is undermined by contamination, overfishing, loss of biodiversity, environmental change, and different issues (Naser, 2013). However, such areas are of vital importance to Arab countries, providing benefits to public health, food security, leisure, and other economic and social benefits. Within the Arab region, 3 major marine regions are identified: the Mediterranean, Red Sea, and Gulf of port (RSGA), and also the ROPME (Gulf) (Burt, 2014).

The semi-enclosed Mediterranean lies off the coasts of North African and Japanese Mediterranean Arab countries. The large-scale industrial activity has threatened coastal livelihood. It is evinced, more than 200 petrochemical and chlorine-based plants are situated along it. Eutrophication—a process whereby water is enriched with nutrients that stimulate primary aquatic production and cause excessive protoctist blooms—may be a chronic downside in bound areas of the Mediterranean, wherever residues from agricultural, chiefly chemical plant food, and non-treated industrial and concrete waste product discharges enter the marine atmosphere. In addition, there is heavy tanker traffic in the Mediterranean, connecting major consumption centers in Europe with the oil production centers of the Middle East.

The most important oil traffic pathway is the Suez Canal. It is a lane for 90% of total oil tanker traffic transportation. The RSGA, one of the world’s most original coastal and marine environments, is vulnerable to a spread of human activities, like dredging and filling operations, the disposal of domestic and industrial effluents, and also the growth of the tourist trade (Al-Yamani et al., 2007). Most of these environmental threats are comparatively recent in origin and may partly be attributed to unsustainable development. The RSA (ROPME Sea Area) is considered a high-risk pollution area, due in particular to a large number of offshore oil and gas installations, tanker loading terminals, and the high volume and density of the marine transportation of oil. It is estimated that roughly 2 million barrels of oil are spilled annually from routine discharges of ballast, tanker slops, and 800 oil and gas platforms (Nadim et al., 2008).

Overfishing, the unsustainable exploitation of fish stocks, may be a major downside within the Mediterranean and the RSGA regions (Bailey & Munawar, 2015). The primary issue is the shortage of knowledge on transboundary stocks, inadequate cooperation within the management of shared stocks, and an absence of police work and social control of existing fishing rules. Additionally, the coral reefs within the RSA and also the RSGA, in the neighborhood where abundant fishing occurs, is an area unit vulnerable by a diversity of environmental stresses (Al-Yamani et al., 2020). Uncontrolled tourism and extensive urban development are the main contributors to the environmental degradation of coastal and marine environments, and this finding applies to all three regions (Almahasheer, 2018). Several current or projected marine protected areas (MPAs), particularly within the RSGA, face overfishing and touristry (Hartig et al., 2019). Finally, in terms of legislation, not enough selected MPAs exist, and also the ones that do exist do not seem to be altogether cases adequately and expeditiously managed (Clarke et al., 2020). Existing laws and rules do not seem to be sufficiently enforced, compliance is not properly monitored, and regional/transboundary cooperation remains inadequate (Uddin et al., 2017). It is unlikely that the state of marine environment in the GCC states is better today compared to three decades ago when these countries first started to join the international and regional seas conventions and programs.

4 Environmental Sustainability Initiatives

The GCC states are facing different environmental crises and trying to resolve them properly. Different countries have taken great initiatives to protect the environment. Being a member of GCC states countries and one of the biggest suppliers of oil in the world, the United Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is also dealing with environmental hazards (Al-Tit et al., 2019), to solve these issues and better the future of Saudi’s. The Saudi government has started the Saudi Green Initiative. The Saudi Green Initiative is an ambitious national initiative for the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to improve quality of life and protect future generations (Shaawat et al., 2018). Carbon emission is the main reason for all types of pollution, which is emitted due to the combustion of fossil fuels such as gas, oil, and coal, etc. (Salem, 2014). The main target of this initiative is to reduce carbon emissions by more than 4% of the global contribution (Ouda, 2016). The forest fires and cutting of trees enhance pollution. Trees serve as isolation toward the pollution as they clear the atmosphere and cause rain (Abubakar & Aina, 2018). Fresh air which is hard to come by in this era of pollution, owes itself to trees (Rahman & Khondaker, 2012). Therefore, the Saudi Green initiative has aimed to plant 10 billion trees across Saudi Arabia (Alshuwaikhat et al., 2016). This will turn the deserts into green livable places, improve the quality of air and reduce the temperature. The 3rd main goal of this initiative is to protect about 30% of the land area that has been damaged or is being damaged.

According to Mazumder (2016), the UAE Vision 2021 National Agenda focuses on improving the quality of air, preserving water resources, increasing the contribution of clean energy, and implementing green growth plans (Petratos, P. (2020). The government looks for and implements collaborative and innovative ways to address their immediate basic demands while also meeting the country’s long-term needs (Matz, 2018). The National Agenda also emphasizes the importance of infrastructure, with the UAE aiming to be among the world’s best in terms of airports, ports, road infrastructure, and power. Furthermore, the UAE’s excellent telecommunications infrastructure will enable it to be a trailblazer in the delivery of Smart services (Shareef & Altan, 2021; Tawfik, 2018). According to the statement released by Saeed Mohammed Al Tayer, MD & CEO of Dubai Electricity and Water Authority (DEWA), the UAE’s wise leadership is pursuing a transformation, trying to build a vision that understands their importance in creating a balance between development and sustainability (Al-Qassab et al., 2019). This could protect the rights of future generations to dwell in a safe and healthy environment. The UAE continues to create massive renewable energy projects, led by programs such as Masdar City in Abu Dhabi and the Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Solar Park in Dubai. These will help to protect the ecosystem and the country’s natural resources in the long run (Martens & Reiser, 2019). Dubai has also revealed plans for more sustainable initiatives, like the Desert Rose, a 14,000-hectare smart city that will house 20,000 Emirati plots and cost 20 billion AED to construct (Noori et al., 2020). There is a pattern emerging from these developments—the United Arab Emirates is already emerging as a global leader in sustainability. This pattern became more obvious after Dubai recently declared its goals to become one of the most sustainable cities in the world. It is critical to create a succession of long-term objectives and goals. These targets will help to guide the design in the pursuit of sustainability goals.

Qatar’s rapid growth necessitated the creation of comprehensive master plans and frameworks to meet the growing demands of sustainable development, which included both physical and non-physical pillars (such as the environment and economy) (Sigsgaard et al., 2020). As urban planning and strategies are adopting sustainable development, Qatar’s planning authorities have worked tirelessly to generate sustainable urban development. The goal is to accomplish the necessary long-term development on both macro and micro levels without endangering Qatar’s environment (Saidy, 2021). To accommodate sustainable urbanization, the Qatar National Vision 2030 and Qatar Development Framework 2032 were established, to implement best-practice methods of green building design and green urban development in Qatar (Saleh & Al-Swidi, 2019). One of the core pillars of sustainability is the green building concept, which is defined as a combination of methods and design standards that work together to improve the personal satisfaction of clients, at the same time, ensuring the climate of networks by diminishing the development pace of normal asset utilization (Ferwati et al., 2019; Tablada et al., 2020). Sustainability requires a highly comprehensive plan that can mitigate particular physical and non-physical challenges. Green building grading systems have been developed in response to the pressing need for sustainable development, however, they lack urban scale application (Liu & Leng, 2021). Qatar recognized the importance of sustainability in 2001 and began to push the adoption of worldwide sustainable construction standards and green building ratings systems such as LEED and BREEAM (Tokbolat & Nazipov, 2021). Since then, Qatar has prepared the main exhaustive supportability structure by the Qatar National Vision (QNV) and Qatar Development Strategies. Also, the Qatari Diar Investment organization declared the principal green structure rating framework in 2004, the alleged Qatar Sustainability Assessment System (QSAS) (Cheshmehzangi et al., 2020). The QSAS has become one of the most significant green structure rating frameworks in the Gulf district (Ferwati et al., 2019).

Many oil leakage incidents happened in Bahrain during the 1980s and 1990s. In February 1993, Bahrain delivered the principal rendition of the NOSCP (Zainal et al., 2020). The plan involves all relevant ministries and businesses. The plan specified the roles and responsibilities of all parties involved. It was created to deal with oil spills in Tier 2 and Tier 3 categories. Due to the changes that occurred in the concerned parties in Bahrain, the plan was updated in 2010. In 2013, the cabinet in Bahrain approved the updated plan (Marzooq, 2021; Uddin et al., 2021). To protect human health and the marine and terrestrial environment, several measures have been put in place, such as: (1) Legislative Decree No 21 of 1996, Article 4 regulates the response to pollution in Bahrain, (2) United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), (3) Oil Pollution Preparedness Response and Co-operation Convention, (4) Regional Oil Spill Contingency Plan, (5) All authorities and industries, either likely to cause pollution or suffer from the consequences of pollution are responsible to draw up a Tier1 Contingency Plan, (6) All plans must be submitted to SCE for approval and the SCE should be invited to witness the exercises, (7) They are also responsible for the cleanup of their minor spills and the protection of their water intakes and sensitive installations (Aldulaimi & Abdeldayem, 2020; Honnur Vali et al., 2020).

The first purpose is to educate the people of Bahrain to understand their environment and how the various components of it depend on and react with each other. In this respect, the importance of the marine environment on their daily activities and for future generations is emphasized (Marzooq et al., 2019), as is the implication of oil pollution concerning marine resources, the economy, and public health. The strategy is for the management and reaction to an oil or HNS leak in Bahrain’s coastal and offshore Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), which could occur as a result of a spill on land or contaminating the shoreline (Pappworth & Caudle, 2016). This plan is currently controlling many oil spills in Bahrain’s seas (Al-Khatlan et al., 2019).

5 Conclusion

Upon exploring the environmental problems, there are numerous challenges ahead for all GCC states. For the oil-exporting countries, sustaining the current economic performance, which has been fueled by oil market developments, is a major challenge. Moreover, environmental challenges have become common in GCC states. The spilling of oil is damaging marine lives and causing almost deaths of a large number of fish. After using these contaminated fish, the lives of people are also at risk. The countries need to use different technologies and methods to stop oil spills and save marine life. Bahrain has prepared a national plan to deal with oil spills on a very large scale. This plan is attempting to solve the oil spills issue and save the marine environment.

The second major challenge is climate change and there are many reasons for this, such as a rapidly increasing population. GCC states like Qatar and the UAE are the most developed countries in the world and their population is increasing day by day. A large number of green deserts are converted into Five stars hotels and many other occupied places. The saturation of people means more demand for vehicles and more vehicles means more air pollution. So, these factors are interlinked. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has taken the initiative of ‘Green Saudi’ to secure the environment and save future generations. This initiative is also coping with air pollution and desertification. To meet future challenges, Arab economies will need to use pollution-free cars like electric cars, which use solar energy.

Another aspect often deemed negligible but can equally support carbon transitioning initiatives is in relation to the development of the creative and innovative sector. While most oil and gas exploration and processing assets such as oil rigs complexes, oil and gas carriers are usually decommissioned or recycled for material salvaged, such infrastructure could also be refitted for repurposes. Oil rig complexes offshores could be transformed innovatively into new economic spaces for hospitality, educational and entertainment sector. The underwater side of oil rigs are usually home for diverse species of sea organisms, and this can become a place for ecological research and awareness, as a site of learning. With researcher, innovative and creative actors stationed in such repurpose infrastructures, multi-functional activities such as retail and recreation hence can be developed to accommodate these community as well as the general public. Educational tours as part of tourism initiatives can also be carried out. Installation of new technologies relating to the energy sector or the use of prototypes on such repurpose structures can also serve as a showcase of current development in the energy sector, further emphasizing the commitments of the Gulf countries toward development of a circular economy. This recommendation shall not be limited only to offshore complexes but also onshore facilities. Learning from the challenges of Europe in greening their energy sector and problems associated with repurposing, recycling and reusing current renewable energy tools materials such as the wind turbine blades as studied by Beauson et al (2022), this initiative provides an alternative to current environmental practices, allowing for multiplier effects that will benefit communities in general as well as adhering to current climate change initiatives, with least environmental effects in contrast to current decommissioning or salvaging operations.

On the national level, GCC states must act through mechanisms of price, specific regulations, targeted taxation, industrial policies and promoting innovation, green investments, standards relating to products and processes, eco-labels, and communication campaigns. On the international level, the support should not impose any further burdens, technical or trade barriers, or conditionality on developing countries. Instead, developed countries should perform their environmental obligation by funding technological research in developing countries, collaborating in the development of appropriate technology, and increasing their capacity to achieve sustainable development.