Effects of COVID-19 on Mental Health in Business: Increasing the Hikikomori-Like Workers in Japan

Abstract

Given the pandemic of COVID-19, many countries including Japan implemented curfew restrictions. Unlike other countries, there were no legal penalties for such restrictions in Japan. However, many citizens voluntarily imposed curfew restrictions. This review paper introduces the impact of this on mental health based on our recent survey studies of Japanese workers. The recent two survey research showed that after the pandemic, 33% of respondents were found to be in the “hikikomori (severe social withdrawal)” or “pre-hikikomori (potentially severe social withdrawal)” category on behavioral indicators. Four antecedents of hikikomori were identified: (1) social anxiety, (2) achievement motivation, (3) new-type depressive tendencies, and (4) self-esteem. These results suggest that hikikomori-like behaviors induced by government policy would lead to real hikikomori behaviors. We also argue that continuous monitoring of Japanese online workers by the psychometric indictors is necessary for preventing further increase of hikikomori.

Motoki Watabe and Takahiro A. Kato are equally corresponded.

Appendices

Appendix A: Hikikomori Questionnaire (HQ-25) [English Version]

Over the last SIX MONTHS, how accurately do the following statements describe you?
		Strongly disagree	Somewhat disagree	Neither agree nor disagree	Somewhat agree	Strongly agree
1	I stay away from other people	0	1	2	3	4
2	I spend most of my time at home	0	1	2	3	4
3	There really isn't anyone with whom I can discuss matters of importance	0	1	2	3	4
4 a	I love meeting new people	0	1	2	3	4
5	I shut myself in my room	0	1	2	3	4
6	People bother me	0	1	2	3	4
7 a	There are people in my life who try to understand me	0	1	2	3	4
8	I feel uncomfortable around other people	0	1	2	3	4
9	I spend most of my time alone	0	1	2	3	4
10 a	I can share my personal thoughts with several people	0	1	2	3	4
11	I don't like to be seen by others	0	1	2	3	4
12	I rarely meet people in-person	0	1	2	3	4
13	It is hard for me to join in on groups	0	1	2	3	4
14	There are few people I can discuss important issues with	0	1	2	3	4
15 a	I enjoy being in social situations	0	1	2	3	4
16	I do not live by society's rules and values	0	1	2	3	4
17	There really isn't anyone very significant in my life	0	1	2	3	4
18	I avoid talking with other people	0	1	2	3	4
19	I have little contact with other people talking, writing, and so on	0	1	2	3	4
20	I much prefer to be alone than with others	0	1	2	3	4
21 a	I have someone I can trust with my problems	0	1	2	3	4
22 a	I rarely spend time alone	0	1	2	3	4
23	I don't enjoy social interactions	0	1	2	3	4
24	I spend very little time interacting with other people	0	1	2	3	4
25 a	I strongly prefer to be around other people	0	1	2	3	4

1. The HQ-25 has a theoretical score range of 0 to 100
2. ^a Item was reverse-scored

Appendix B: The 22-item Tarumi’s Modern-Type Depression Trait Scale (TACS-22): English Version

How much would you agree with each of the following statements? Please mark the most appropriate answer that reflects how you normally are. Don’t think too much before answering
		Disagree	Somewhat disagree	Neither agree nor disagree	Somewhat agree	Agree
1	I want others around me to tell me it’s okay to take a break	0	1	2	3	4
2	I am a vulnerable person	0	1	2	3	4
3	I want to spend time only doing things I enjoy rather than working or studying	0	1	2	3	4
4†	I think somehow life will turn out okay	0	1	2	3	4
5	I don’t want to be pressured to fit into conventional social roles	0	1	2	3	4
6	I wish I could reset social expectations and rules	0	1	2	3	4
7	I want others around me to respect my individuality	0	1	2	3	4
8	I am a perfectionist	0	1	2	3	4
9†	Hardship is necessary in life	0	1	2	3	4
10	No one understands me	0	1	2	3	4
11	I’d rather go my own way instead of going along with others around me	0	1	2	3	4
12	I am unworthy	0	1	2	3	4
13	It’s natural to take a break when I am not feeling well	0	1	2	3	4
14	I don’t have adequate support from people around me	0	1	2	3	4
15	I want to rely on people	0	1	2	3	4
16	I feel bad when people are concerned for me	0	1	2	3	4
17	I cut corners when I do things I don’t want to do	0	1	2	3	4
18	I get blamed for things I didn’t do	0	1	2	3	4
19	I don’t want to struggle too much in life	0	1	2	3	4
20	I show distress easily through my facial expressions and body language	0	1	2	3	4
21	There are many meaningless rules in the world	0	1	2	3	4
22	It’s other people’s fault that I am in my current situation	0	1	2	3	4

1. TACS-22 has a theoretical score range of 0–88
2. ^† Items were reverse-scored