Keywords

1 Introduction

Mitigating the negative effects of environmental change is an important driver of the green economy. It is argued in this study that developing green skills, knowledge and attitudes in the workforce will be an important way to promote a greener economy. While the development of green skills is one of the emerging areas of the TVET sector, it is equally important for enterprises to promote green skills as part of staff training and RVA, if Nepal is to promote sustainable infrastructure and tackle the negative impacts of climate change.

Inclusion of green skills in RVA mechanisms and staff training dealing with environmental-friendly practices in enterprises needs to be mutually beneficial for enterprises and the individual as well as the environment, economy and society.

RVA of competences, prior learning and work experience is an efficient way to recognise and motivate people to develop their skills and undertake further education and training. RVA involves the identification, mediation, assessment and acknowledgement of skills obtained from formal, non-formal and informal learning.

As this study shows, only a few enterprises understand the concept and practice of RVA, even though the National Skills Training Board (NSTB) under the country’s Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training (CTEVT) has a system which identifies, accredits, recognises and certifies skills acquired in all learning settings. There remains a big gap in the current requirements of green skills and mechanisms for their recognition, validation and accreditation.

This chapter presents an overview of the socio-economic and educational context in Nepal; analyses the environmental challenges and opportunities and the national response to them; conceptualises an understanding of green skills in Nepal drawing on international definitions; examines the status of green skills and RPL in four major sectors of Nepalese industries and discusses some of the major challenges and opportunities for establishing mechanisms for recognising green skill.

The socio-economic and educational context

Nepal is a landlocked country located between the People’s Republic of China in the north and India in the east, south and west. People of diverse social, cultural, ethnic and religious backgrounds inhabit the country. Among a population of 27 million, 81.34% are Hindus (CBS 2014).

The Nepalese economy has performed poorly in the last decades, with an average growth in the gross domestic product (GDP) of around 4%. Over 60% of the population depends upon agriculture for their livelihood (CBS 2011b). The poor quality of produce prevents farmers from accessing markets with high returns. The use of obsolete and unproductive technologies holds down the rural standard of living and motivates people to leave rural areas.

The poor state of Nepal’s transport infrastructure is one of the causes of low growth in all agricultural sub-sectors. Nepal experienced economic transformation in the late 1980s and early 1990s as a consequence of high growth in manufacturing due to increased investments in infrastructure and industrial zones. However, since 1995, manufacturing has witnessed a negative or near-zero growth rate. The contribution of agricultural and industrial sectors to GDP is declining, although the service sector is on the rise resulting in it overtaking the agricultural sector in the share of value-added growth and an increase in its share of employment.

Poverty is another challenge. One in every four Nepalese is still living in poverty. Although the officially measured unemployment rate is negligible (2.1%), the underemployment rate is very high—46% (CBS 2011b).

Remittances from migrant workers employed abroad have become an important factor in the Nepalese economy and society over the past two decades. Approximately, 1.9 million Nepalese work overseas, excluding India, of whom about 5% are women (CBS 2011b). At least 800,000 (undocumented) Nepalese workers work in the private sector in India and about 250,000 in India’s public sector.

Despite substantial investments in terms of time, money and human resources in the development of the formal education system, only 62% of the rural population has access to education (CBS 2011a). Furthermore, the education provided does not adequately meet the diverse learning needs of the population of Nepal. A good education that takes account of context, culture and ideology remains a key issue for a country like Nepal.

The challenges of environmental degradation

Developing a workforce with green skills is one of the emerging concerns in Nepal in general and particularly in the TVET sector. The negative impacts of climate change and the effect they are having on the industry and the economy are becoming key drivers for transitioning towards a greener economy. Such a transition requires green skills, knowledge and attitudes to tackle environmental challenges.

Nepal is vulnerable to natural disasters and negative impacts of climate change because of its fragile, unstable landscape. Climate change is causing floods, glacial lake outbursts and landslides, as well as a scarcity of water. Besides climate change and depletion of the ozone layer, rapid population growth and urbanisation are major threats to the natural landscape. The proportion of the country that is forested has decreased to 40.36% from 60% a few decades ago (DFRS 2015). Together with climate change, the heavy pollution of industrial areas and problems with waste management are further environmental challenges. Water scarcity is another challenge: many communities do not have access to safe and reliable water supplies, and sanitation is a particular problem in impoverished areas where social and gender inequality is widespread. The increased use of modern extractive technology is a further threat to the natural resources of Nepal.

These negative influences severely affect Nepal’s industry and economy in areas such as hydropower, tourism, the cultivation of medicinal herbs and the preservation of forestland. These industries are important and have a great potential to contribute to the development of the economy.

Although green skills and their relevance for the greening of the economy are increasingly a focus of formal education, there is very little emphasis on the recognition and development of green skills in non-formal settings such as workplaces and through informal learning. This chapter argues that it is imperative to pay attention to developing and recognising green skills through non-formal and informal learning.

Environmental challenges in the four industries

Solid and liquid waste management are common challenges across the four industries in this study. However, some specific challenges were also observed:

  • For the catering sector issues are related to food supply: there is a problem with food quality gradings, so catering companies cannot make informed decisions regarding their supply chain. Farmers use traditional methods for growing vegetables without testing the characteristics of the soil. Often water is a problem, so productivity is low and supply is unstable. Efficient use of energy for cooking and the type of energy is another issue. Catering companies are not using electricity (that can be environmentally friendly energy) for cooking. Usually, LPG gas is used in urban areas and firewood in rural areas, both are not green energy. Collection of used oil and separation of waste are additional challenges for the sector.

  • The waste management sector has problems finding proper landfill sites. Sometimes there are too many demands made by local communities on waste management workers; but on the other hand, waste management workers often hesitate to address the genuine concerns of the communities.

  • Most PVC manufacturing industries are located in populated areas, exposing neighbouring communities to air pollution.

  • Similarly, many automobile workshops lack a proper drainage system to dispose of liquid waste. A serious concern in automotive industries is the discharge of polluted liquid waste directly into rivers or thrown improperly onto the nearby ground.

The national response to environmental challenges

Through a series of political and constitutional changes, Nepal aims to develop an environmentally friendly economy by revising existing policies, rules and regulations. Nepal’s three-year plan for 2016–2019 incorporated concepts such as climate resilience, a pollution-free environment and renewable energy sources. The government of Nepal has endorsed a national adaptation programme of action (NAPA). Recognising and developing green skills both in public and private organisations could be further important steps for Nepal to transition towards a greener economy and a cleaner, protected environment.

The 2015 constitution of Nepal adopted a sustainable development approach, and the government’s greening policies and agendas include the implementation of various programmes and projects; notably, its industrial policy includes provisions for cleaner production and transportation.

A range of environmental legislation, rules and regulations, and policies to mitigate adverse environmental impacts resulting from human actions have been developed in Nepal.

Box 10.1 Environmental legislation, rules and regulations and policies to mitigate adverse environmental impacts

  • Relevant provisions in Local Self-Governance Act 1998 are concerned with local-level environmental planning in areas such as forest and biodiversity conservation, land-use management, pollution control and public sanitation;

  • The Environment Protection Act 1996 enforces the maintenance of a clean and healthy environment and contributes to sustainable development;

  • The Forest Act, 1992 conserves and manages forest and biodiversity;

  • The Water Resources Act, 1992 promotes environmental assessment, such as water quality standards, and water use in the local environment;

  • The Electricity Act 1992 controls the environmental effects of electricity generation and transmission;

  • The Vehicle and Transport Management Act 1992 sets emission standards for vehicles and the regulation of this standard;

  • The Industrial Enterprises Act 1992 promotes pollution-control measures for the industrial sector;

  • The Pesticide Act 1991 regulates the use, production and distribution of pesticides;

  • The Labour Act 1991 imposes health and safety measures in the work environment;

  • The Solid Waste (Management and Resource Mobilization) Act 1986 ensures the management of solid waste through the collection, transportation, recycling and disposal, and the classification of hazardous waste;

  • The Soil and Water Conservation Act 1982 ensures soil conservation through land-use regulation;

  • The Tourism Act 1978 minimises environmental pollution during mountaineering activities;

  • The National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973 manages national parks, wildlife reserves and conservation areas.

Source: Authors, based on various legislations and acts

Furthermore, Article 30 (3) of the 2015 constitution of Nepal identifies the importance of the right to a clean environment (SoCA 2015):

  1. (1)

    Every citizen shall have the right to live in a clean and healthy environment.

  2. (2)

    The victim shall have the right to obtain compensation, in accordance with the law, for any injury caused by environmental pollution or degradation.

  3. (3)

    This Article shall not be deemed to prevent the making of necessary legal provisions for a proper balance between the environment and development, in the development works of the nation (SoCA 2015, p. 20).

In 2011, the Government of Nepal, the Ministry of Labour and Transport Management and the International Labour Office in Nepal launched an initiative to mobilise all stakeholders—governments, employers and workers’ organisations, international and national development partners, civil society, media and donor agencies to address the effects of climate change.

2 Terminology and Definitions

Conceptualisation of green skills in Nepal

Green skills is a blanket term for knowledge, skills and broader competences, values and attitudes necessary for a worker to engage in an economy with reduced negative impacts on the environment. The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) defines green skills as ‘The knowledge, abilities, values and attitudes needed to live in, develop and support a sustainable and resource-efficient society’ (Cedefop 2012). New economic developments generate new or renewed occupations, related qualifications and skill profiles. Structural economic changes resulting from the greening of the economy create a need to realign diminishing/decreasing sectors and retrain workers accordingly. In Nepal, the national occupation skill standards include newly developed green jobs such as solar PV technician, micro-hydro operator, biogas technician and solar electric technician (repair and maintenance).

Achieving an energy-efficient economy requires greater integration of climate and energy policies with measures to support employment as well as innovative and responsive vocational education and training (VET) policies that encourage the development of skills needed for a low-carbon economy (Cedefop 2012). TVET in Nepal takes into account the changing needs of the market both in developing new curricula and revising existing ones.

The concept of ‘green skills’ is related to the notion of ‘green jobs’. Green jobs contribute to the reduction of negative environmental impact. One could say that there is already a long history of green jobs in Nepal, ranging from environmentally friendly green roads to drip irrigation, improved stoves and biogas to community forestry, and improvement of irrigation canals for farmer’s user groups. However, green jobs are not only restricted to jobs in the agricultural sector; to overcome the challenges of unemployment, underemployment and lack of decent jobs as well as the problems of unnecessary migration facing Nepal, the concepts of ‘green jobs’ and ‘green businesses’ need to be considered in all sectors. Also, green jobs are not limited to the obvious green sectors such as renewable energy and waste management but can also be developed in tourism, infrastructure-development programmes, the automotive industry, catering and all kinds of manufacturing industries.

Based on Cedefop’s study on the greening of the economy (Cedefop 2012), Nepal’s skills needs for a greening economy can be analysed in the following way:

  • Structural changes lead to increased demand for some occupations and decreased demand for others. The Nepalese economy has been experiencing structural change over the last few decades. The contribution of the agriculture and non-agriculture sectors to GDP was 37.49 and 62.5%, respectively, in the fiscal year 2002–2003 (MoF 2010), while the corresponding shares were 29.37% and 70.63%, respectively, in the fiscal year 2016–2017 (MoF 2017). As a result, there has been an increase in the demand for skilled jobs such as those of waiters, plumbers, and salespersons.

  • New economic activities will create new occupations and there will be a need for new skill profiles and qualification and training frameworks. The National Skill Testing Board (NSTB) is developing various occupational profiles (OP)/National Occupational Skill Standards (NOSS) in new areas. In 2009, there were only 125 OP/NOSS developed by NSTB; by the end of 2017, the figure was 286 (CTEVT 2009, 2018). While some of these standards relate to existing occupations, most of them are new kinds of jobs.

  • Many existing occupations and industries will experience greening changes to tasks within their jobs, and this will require adjustments to the current training and qualification frameworks for these occupations. In the four industries sector surveyed in this study, there is a need to introduce technicians for waste treatment, organic food technologists and recycling plant operators.

A three-tier approach to the greening of skills

Shyamal Majumdar (2011) proposes a three-tier approach to the greening of skills at the institutional, national and international levels. It will be useful to analyse the status of green skills at all these three levels concerning the situation in Nepal.

The institutional level

At this level, although the terms ‘green skills’ and ‘greening of skills’ are new in Nepal, TVET curricula in Nepal already incorporate environmental components to some extent. However, there is much more to be done in areas such as creating institutional expertise and promoting a culture of research. The skills, knowledge and attitudes utilised by instructors and the management, as well as the teaching–learning processes need to orient towards greening agendas. In addition, TVET activities associated with enterprises and communities need to be included.

The national level

At the national level, the Government of Nepal has formulated and implemented various policies and sustainable development agendas, but it has yet to promote a policy on green skills and the greening of skills. While environmental concerns are included in national socio-economic policies, there are few policies focusing on green skills agendas that specifically target greening the Nepalese economy and society. There are many stakeholders currently involved in implementing, monitoring and enforcing environmental activities in Nepal such as the Ministry of Environment and Population as well as the associated departments/offices. There are also other governmental departments, non-governmental and private agencies working on sustainable development strategies. However, a coordinated inter-sectoral partnership is still lacking among organisations.

The international level

At the level of the global development agenda, the United Nation’s 2030 SDG goals serve as an important framework for Nepal. There are also several organisations with which Nepal liaisons with the regional and international organisations. For example, the Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training (CTEVT) as an apex organisation in TVET sub-sector of Nepal is also the liaison office of the regional organization Colombo Plan Staff College for Technician Education (CPSC) and a UNEVOC Centre.

Regional and international fora organised by these organisations provide sharing and learning opportunities to planners and policy-makers. In addition, the capacity-development programmes organised by other organisations such as UNDP, the World Bank, ILO, ADB and DFID, also provide information about recent developments in the global arena. However, such capacity-development opportunities are too few to provide sufficient opportunities for gaining exposure to global TVET activities.

The TVET sub-sector of Nepal in particular has benefited through these capacity-building and research activities focusing on greening TVET agendas.

The status of RVA in Nepal

Recognition, validation and accreditation (RVA) or recognition of prior learning (RPL) as it is called in the Nepalese context is the identification, validation, assessment and acknowledgement of skills acquired in formal, non-formal and informal learning settings. ‘Green skills’ refers to knowledge, abilities, values and attitudes needed to live in, develop and support a sustainable and resource-efficient society.

Most people working in forestry, waste management, agriculture, building construction, infrastructure development, tourism, transport and food production acquire their skills non-formally and informally. Since many tasks within existing jobs and work are undergoing greening, these changes will require not only adjustments to the current training and qualifications framework for these occupations but also mechanisms and instruments for the recognition, validation and accreditation of current and emergent green skills practised in these sectors. Although there are difficulties in the recognition of competences acquired outside the formal system, the recognition of green skills in enterprises is mutually beneficial for enterprises, individuals and the environment. For the individual, recognition may ease access to the formal system for further education and training. For people who are deprived of formal education, but have learned skills predominantly in the world of work, recognition may help them to secure an employment. Acknowledging and accrediting their skills and previous experiences can improve their career prospects in green jobs. Needless to say, this career improvement can take place only when green job standards are also simultaneously put in place. Recognition, in this way can help the workers to become more attractive to the labour market and create a demand for them in the labour market.

Non-formal and informal learning contexts

The inadequacy of formal education to fulfil the needs of skills development has culminated in the emergence of the new approach to learning, whereby valuing knowledge, skills and competences from non-formal and informal learning is regarded as key to ‘lifelong learning’ (Regmi 2009). A study from Nepal has shown that stakeholders in Nepal agreed that the Nepalese education system should give equal emphasis to formal, non-formal and informal learning settings.

Nepal has harmonised its educational policies towards lifelong learning in line with those of ILO, UNESCO and regional organisations, like APEC, ASEAN, and the European Union. Nepal follows the 2004 Human Resources Development recommendations adopted at the 92nd ILC session (17 June 2004 (ILO 2004)). According to the European Commission, lifelong learning is ‘all learning activities undertaken throughout life with the aim of improving knowledge, skills and competences within a personal, civic, social, and/or employment related perspective’ (Gvaramadze 2007).

The existing system of skills recognition in Nepal

Nepal currently has a system for recognising skills acquired in all learning settings. The certification system used by the National Skills Training Board (NSTB) was set up in Nepal in 1983 by an autonomous body, the Skills Testing Authority (STA). The STA introduced a system for the classification of occupations and the testing and certification of skills in accordance with the guidelines of the Asia Pacific skill development project/International Labour Organization (APSDEP/ILO). With the formation of CTEVT in 1989, the STA gave way to the NSTB. The NSTB was under the jurisdiction of the CTEVT, which is the apex body for TVET in Nepal. The NSTB was responsible for developing national occupational skills standards (NOSS)/profiles. By the end of 2017, the NSTB had developed 286 NOSSs, tested 383,459 craftspeople and certified 274,400 passed candidates (CTEVT 2018). Skills tests are performance-based, requiring candidates to demonstrate mastery of occupational skills standards for their chosen trade to obtain a national skills certificate. An occupational skills standard is a written specification of the practical skills, knowledge and experience demonstrated by an individual in a particular occupation.

Testing and certification of skills

NSTB has certified thousands of workers since its establishment. It issues a call for application for skills tests three times a year. Candidates can apply individually or in a group at any time to take the skills test. In some cases, the industries or institutions facilitate and sponsor their trainees/ workers for NSTB skills tests.

Although most of the already developed skills standards for skill tests include technical or core skills, currently they also incorporate green skills, undertaken at the time of revising or updating previously developed standards or the development of new ones.

The development of sector skill committees

In 2013, the Swiss Agencies for Development and Cooperation (SDC) and CTEVT signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) in which they pledged to work jointly to facilitate the development of Sector Skill Committees (SSC) as well as the National Vocational Qualifications Framework (NVQF). An SSC is an informal body comprising representatives from government, employers, training institutions and federations in the industrial sector concerned. To date, one SSC has been established, dealing with the construction sector.

Level descriptors and learning outcomes

Skills tests are targeted primarily towards the following three groups:

  • Graduates from pre-employment vocational training programmes who need help in making the transition from training to work. Many of these programmes are run by international agencies and private sector groups working together with local governments to deliver on-the-job training, integrating gender and social inclusion approaches as well as labour market relevance.

  • Experienced workers (employed or unemployed) who lack official certification.

  • Workers who have completed an in-service training programme and are seeking an upgrade or additional certificate.

Recognition of prior learning is embedded in skills tests, which are related to a five-level certification system, from elementary level to levels one to four.

  • Skills test elementary level requires successful completion of 140 h of vocational training in relevant occupation/trade.

  • Skills test Level 1 requires the candidate to be literate with knowledge and skills in the relevant occupation and have a minimum of one year’s work experience in a related occupation/trade. Alternatively, the requirement is successful completion of one month (160 h) of vocational training in a relevant occupation/trade, or vocational training with six months’ work experience in the relevant occupation/trade.

  • Skills test Level 2 requires the candidate to be literate with knowledge and skills in the relevant occupation and have a minimum of one year’s work experience in a related occupation/trade. Alternatively, one year in training (minimum 600 h of theory and 800 h of the Level 1 Skills Test in a relevant occupation/trade).

  • Skills test Level 3 requires the candidate to be literate with knowledge and skills in the relevant occupation and have a minimum of five years’ work experience in a related occupation/trade. Alternatively, two years’ work experience and one year in training in a relevant occupation/trade, or one year’s work experience after completion of the Level 2 Skills Test in a relevant occupation/trade.

  • Skills test Level 4 (specifically for Ophthalmic Assistants) requires the candidate to have three years of experience and one year in training after completion of the Level 3 Ophthalmic Assistant Skills Test, or a Certificate in Health Science (Ophthalmology) or equivalent with three years of experience and one year in training (Fig. 10.1).

Fig. 10.1
A flowchart illustrates the start to end procedures of a test. It begins with preparation activities. Some of the important steps highlighted are: individuals, companies, or institutes apply for testing; form registered and admission card issued; tests conducted and evaluated; results finalized and recommended to N S T B for approval.

Source Based on CTEVT (2020)

Nepal: skills testing procedures.

Full size image

3 Methodology of Primary Data Collection

This study has attempted to identify practices of green skills and RPL in four industrial sectors—catering, automotive, waste management and PVC manufacturing. The research design followed the overall methodology of the project (see Chap. 1) and adopted a qualitative approach. Information was collected from 20 selected micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs). Of the enterprises surveyed, four were from catering eight from automotive, two from waste management and six from PVC manufacturing. The study used semi-structured interview questions designed by Pavlova (see Chap. 1) after a slight modification. Both employers and employees were interviewed. The questionnaire focused on environmentally friendly practices, promotion of green skills, training activities for employees and recognition mechanisms. Observations were also conducted by researchers during their visits to the enterprises. The research design included the following steps: problem identification, literature review and consultation with experts, site selection, field survey and data collection, analysis of the data together with experts, and reporting of research findings.

4 Results and Discussion

Educational level of employees in different industry sectors

A total of 501 employees were employed in 20 enterprises, with the highest number in catering enterprises, followed by PVC manufacturing, automotive and waste management. A high percentage of employees were found to have benefitted from higher education (47.70%), followed by secondary education (24.75%), below secondary (15.96%), showing that despite the fact that skills acquisition is mostly non-formal and informal, education continues to play an important role in enterprises (see Table 10.1).

Table 10.1 Number of employees by education and sector
Full size table

Awareness of green policies and regulations among employers and executive managers

Fifty-five per cent of the employers and respondents answered that they were fully aware of environmental rules and regulations, whereas the remaining 45% of the respondents reported that they are only partially aware. All respondents from the automotive sector answered that they were partially aware of environmental regulations. In the catering and waste management sectors, in contrast, all respondents were fully aware of environmental regulations related to their enterprises. In the PVC manufacturing sector, there was a mixed response: 71% of the respondents were aware, whereas 29% of respondents were partially aware. Figure 10.2 shows the results across the four industry sectors.

Fig. 10.2
A bar graph depicts 7 respondents from the automotive sector and 2 from P V C manufacturing, who are partially aware of green policies. 4, 5, and 2 respondents from the catering, P V C manufacturing, and waste management sectors who are fully aware of green policies.

Source Authors

Awareness of green policies by employers in the industry sector.

Full size image

As stated above, the Government of Nepal has devised various policies, rules and regulations for cleaner production and transportation. While most respondents answered that they were aware of environmental regulations, hardly any of them could name the existing government rules and policies related to their field of work. This suggests that the employees have only partial information about the various aspects of environmental preservation. Most of the employers said that they registered their enterprises in accordance with governmental regulations, but they were unaware of the specific environmental policies that were relevant to their enterprise. Relatively larger enterprises with more than 50 employees mentioned that government departments/ministries occasionally monitored compliance and reported that they have their own internal monitoring section. Smaller enterprises with a fewer number of employees, in contrast, mentioned that such type of external monitoring at the government level was neither conducted on a regular basis nor did they have their own internal mechanisms for monitoring.

Understanding the notion of green skills

The notion of ‘green skills’ is a new concept and there is still hardly any effort to identify, document or certify green skills either in enterprises or at the institution level in Nepal. However, employees were familiar with the term ‘soft skills’ and sometimes received orientation in environmental issues through either external agencies or the industries themselves.

Regarding familiarity with concepts dealing with environmental problems, this study found that employers in waste management and catering/hospitality had relatively greater awareness in comparison to employers in PVC manufacturing and automotive. The employers in the latter two sectors are of the view that green skills did not contribute significantly to increasing the competitiveness and productivity of their enterprises. They said that they were following the official regulations only because they were mandatory by law, not because they were intrinsically motivated to do so. Most of the employers in catering and waste management said they were aware and acknowledged the importance of environmentally friendly practices for society. A small number of employers also mentioned that while recruiting workers they took account of previous educational qualifications, including certificates awarded by NSTB, generic and technical skills, attitudes and previous experience as parameters of their competences and considered this recognition as a base for further skills development.

Besides the employers and employees of selected enterprises, members of trade unions, officials from the department of industry and NSTB board members were also interviewed. The term ‘green skills’ is new for many such stakeholders in this field.

Importance of the level of green skills at the enterprise level

Employers and employees were asked to rate their companies on a scale from 1 to 10 on the importance they give to green skills, where 15 is low importance and 6–10 is moderate to high importance. All enterprises rated the importance of green skills at the level from 6 to 9. All seven enterprises in the automotive sector rated them 6, whereas both enterprises in the waste management sector rated them 9. Table 10.2 shows the ratings made by individual enterprises and the average of each category of enterprises.

Table 10.2 The importance attached to green skills
Full size table

It is interesting to note that most enterprises attached high value to green skills, yet the observations related to the work environment showed that the actual situation was different. This is probably because most of the enterprises were more concerned with economic gain and maximisation of their production rather than introducing environmentally friendly practices. Enterprises focused on immediate return of investment and accumulation of profit. Both employers and employees were hardly aware of the policies, rules and regulations that they must follow; however, they are aware of the basic concepts and importance of environmental preservation.

Environmentally friendly practices in the enterprises

There were no specific environment-friendly practices observed in most of the enterprises. Most of the respondents (80%) indicated that they followed standard workplace procedures specified in rules and regulations to minimise negative impacts on the environment, dispose of waste responsibly and reuse it, if possible. Respondents in the automotive sector did not clarify which specific environmentally friendly practices they followed but clarified that they paid proper attention to waste disposal. Some of the catering enterprises, like Alfa House and Indreni Foodland, practised solid waste management, liquid waste management, precautions taken regarding hygienic food and a clean environment, and organised programmes for awareness-creation. Enterprises in waste management, being themselves green enterprises, were more likely to say that all their activities were environmentally friendly.

Most employers and employees showed concern and interest in keeping their environment ‘clean’. However, in all the enterprises, there was little importance given to collecting and analysing data relating to environmental risk, impacts and management. Two enterprises working in waste treatment, however, said that they had practices for recording data and analysing it as a basis for guiding future improvements. None of the enterprises introduced cleaner technology in the production process, although several policies are in place for environmental promotion regarding the proper management of solid waste, treatment of liquid waste as well as control and treatment of air pollution. The monitoring mechanism is not effective, and reward and punishment systems are poor. Moreover, there were no new green jobs developed in waste and water management, renewable energy and energy saving, or pollution control.

Skill requirements by enterprises

Although green skills are a new concept, all enterprises said that environmental understanding, information and knowledge and green skills were top requirements. They considered skills for proper management and treatment of all types of waste as a basic need. The management of these enterprises, however, was in every instance reluctant to install modern technology for waste treatment because of the high costs involved. Few larger industries and hotels that have installed such machines have had to curtail their use due to a lack of skilled and trained operating and repair technicians.

Among the enterprises participating in the study, the managers of catering and waste management enterprises were comparatively more interested in recruiting technicians with green skills than the managers in automotive and PVC manufacturing. Most of the customers of catering industries were found to be more concerned about issues concerning health and hygiene. On the other hand, the customers of automotive enterprises pay less attention to cleanliness. Their only concern was the service costs they had to pay. Although there is not much current demand for specific green skills and greening skills, such demands are likely to increase in the future because of the increasing awareness of people towards the environment.

While enterprises hardly mentioned the use of specific hard-core skills required for the practice of green jobs, they did refer to the importance of promoting generic green skills. The following skills were selected by participants from the list presented by researchers (see Chap. 1, Pavlova 2014), system and risk analysis, innovation and the ability to identify opportunities for greener technology. Strategic skills, leadership skills, marketing skills, networking and IT language skills were also seen as essential interpersonal skills according to the respondents. Surprisingly, very few respondents mentioned intrapersonal skills such as adaptability to apply new green technologies and entrepreneurial skills.

Generally, the assessment of the suitability of an employee during the recruitment process was almost similar in all enterprises. Most of the enterprises select employees by checking their certificates, interviewing them, and asking candidates to demonstrate the required skills. In small-scale auto workshops, a good demonstration of the required skills rather than certificates was decisive in the selection process.

Mechanisms for recognising skills, prior learning and work experience in the enterprise

Recognition, validation and accreditation of skills acquired outside formal learning settings, such as on-the-job training in the context of the workplace, skills development programmes or apprenticeships, are carried out at the national level by the National Skill Testing Board (NSTB) which is a governmental institution. However, none of the 20 enterprises had mechanisms for the recognition, validation and accreditation of competences, prior learning or work experience. Workers who had more than five years of experience did not consider it necessary to get their skills tested and validated, and be awarded a certificate. Most of them said that a certificate was not important for them as they had the skills required to perform the jobs and customers trusted them on the quality they delivered. Interacting with employers and employees, most were found to be unaware of the national skill-testing mechanism existing in the country, under the CTEVT. After briefing them on the system and upon hearing about the system, most of the respondents were convinced of the importance and usefulness of documents certifying their skills and expressed their interest to have their skills certified. This reveals that enterprises were not being provided with adequate information on opportunities for having skills recognised. Although some enterprises have mechanisms to upgrade their employees based on work experience or duration of their job tenure, enterprises rarely used formal mechanisms of recognition, validation and accreditation of non-formal and informal learning. There was also no conscious effort to develop mechanisms at the enterprise level.

Almost all the employers (in some cases their executive managers) understood or referred to the term ‘green skills’ as keeping the environment clean. Most respondents reported that they kept their work premises clean. However, because the understanding of green skills is limited, it will be important to develop a comprehensive framework of what green skills are in the first place. Only with the help of such a comprehensive framework will it be possible to document, identify, assess and verify the green skills of employees as well as the skills gaps in the promotion of green practices. This study is the first bottom-up approach towards coming up with a comprehensive framework.

Some enterprises also report that the performance of workers and the duration of their work experience or their job tenure are taken into consideration for promotion and recruitment; however, these mechanisms are completely informal. Formal mechanisms of RPL did not exist yet and there was no attempt to link with the national skills test system under the NSTB and CTEVT with skills recognition at the enterprise level.

Although the term ‘green skills’ is still not in use, the newly developed or revised TVET curricula incorporate a significant amount of environmentally friendly components. It is a common practice to revise and develop the National Occupational Skill Standard and at the same time incorporate green skills. Such activities at the national level are useful for creating general awareness about green skills and green jobs. However, long-time and systematic efforts will be needed to make both employers and employees fully aware of the importance of green skills and RVA.

Enterprises/employers do not give importance to continuous/frequent training of staff, since training takes time away from work and would therefore result in a loss of profit. The usual custom for enterprises is to provide brief orientation training for newly appointed staff before they join work. In the case of the automotive sector, auto companies sometimes organise a short training course dealing with how to operate new machinery. The main purpose of training in all sectors is to deal with new technology and inform employees about existing regulations and legislation. This training is neither accredited nor certified.

Incorporating green skills in RVA

Respondents from all sectors showed interest in and are aware of the benefits of incorporating green skills in RPL as it has the potential at the enterprise level to increase productivity and at the individual employee level to enhance employability and increased income. Employers and employees alike acknowledge that the development and recognition of green skills can help them compete in the global market, because of the general acceptance and recognition of the importance of the green economy for environmental sustainability as well as economic transformation.

5 Conclusions and Recommendations

This study has examined green skills recognition in 20 enterprises in four industries: catering, automotive, waste management and PVC manufacturing. The social and economic development of any country or territory is a function of the availability of a skilled workforce. Therefore, the integration of green skills and environmentally friendly concepts in the workplace would be an effective way to pursue economic and social development. In this regard, the conclusions are presented under four headings.

Policy and regulation

The constitution of Nepal has made it mandatory that each policy should be in line with environmental preservation. The corresponding policies, rules and periodic plans of government have incorporated several provisions for promoting a green and clean economy. However, because of the lack of regular monitoring from responsible agencies such as the Department of Industry, the Department of Labour and the Ministry of Science and Environment, there are many gaps in the implementation of the policy.

Green practices and green skills

Much work needs to be done in promoting awareness of green skills and RPL, among employers and employees. None of the enterprises was found to be concerned about the negative impacts of their activities on the surrounding environment, nor were governmental regulatory mechanisms in place to curb or mitigate the negative effects of environmentally unfriendly practices in the workplace.

Every sector showed interest in green skills even though both concepts are very new to them. Most of the enterprises are interested in the promotion of environmental-friendly practices. Their vision of environmentally friendly work included the promotion of organic products, initiatives on awareness creation among employees, installation of waste treatment plants, designing policies/guidelines for green enterprises, maintenance of equipment and the use of the latest technologies.

Awareness of green skills and green practices both in private and public sectors could be a prerequisite for sustainable development.

The practice of RVA

Although there are some practices of RVA at the national level seen in the establishment of the National Skill Testing Board (NSTB), RVA use among employers in the private sector is low. This study has found that people with a high skill set applicable to their sector are unaware of existing skills-testing mechanisms.

Policy, as well as government initiatives, could increase awareness among employers and employees about the benefits of RVA. During recruitment processes, employers almost entirely depend on the traditional practices of interviewing, work demonstration and certificates of formal training. A skills certificate provided by National Skill Testing Board could be considered while recruiting employees. RPL linked to the NSTB has been implemented to some extent and some environmentally friendly components have already been included in curricula and occupational skill standards. Therefore, there are numerous opportunities and challenges existing in this subject area.

Staff training programmes in the area of green skills

Since the Nepalese industry is still in its early stages of development, the focus of industry and businesses is more on increasing production output rather than considering possible impacts of the production process. Except for some big and multinational companies, there is little inclination among employers to invest in human resources development (HRD). SMEs often hesitate to send their workers for training and orientation programmes conducted by other development partners.

Following the research, some challenges, opportunities and recommendations are presented below.

Major challenges

Major challenges identified through the study included:

  • The absence of effective government regulatory activities and a low level of environmental awareness result in a lack of motivation among MSME clients, employers and employees to adopt environmentally friendly practices.

  • The increase in production costs and reduction in competitiveness due to financial and technical constraints arise from the introduction of cleaner technologies and the promotion of green skills.

  • The low demand amongst consumers for higher-quality goods manufactured using clean technologies.

  • The absence of both promotion and advocacy for introducing workers to RVA and green skills and the lack of governmental intervention.

  • Businesses do not take the time to take stock of existing skills through recognition processes and do not arrange training programmes as necessary to prepare their workforce to meet current skills demands.

  • Failure to use RVA at the time of recruitment by most employers, induction, or in appraisal systems and supervision. This applies to enterprises in both the formal and informal sectors.

  • A lack of governmental policies for the recognition of green skills in the workplace, and poor implementation of existing environmental legislations.

  • Lack of motivation among MSMEs to adopt environmentally friendly practices.

  • Absence of detailed studies that identify the creation of green jobs resulting from new/green technology.

  • Absence of labour force projections and new skill requirements for green occupations.

Major opportunities for the inclusion of green skills in RVA

The inclusion of green skills in RVA would create opportunities:

  • to effectively use limited resources by facilitating the reuse and recycling of waste;

  • to expand employment opportunities at the local level, since the majority of the population of Nepal still lives in villages where people are more dependent on locally available natural resources;

  • to preserve and explore various indigenous and traditional skills of the country (e.g. chemical-free natural fibre has been disappearing due to the overuse of artificial fibre)

  • to transform into a greener economy, thus creating additional jobs in several areas such as pollution-control devices, renewable energy installations, etc.;

  • to recognise new employment opportunities within the sectors of organic farming, renewable energy, reusing and recycling of waste.

Recommendations

Based on the analysis of the information collected during the survey as well as on other secondary information, the following recommendations are presented:

  • RVA and green skills are new concepts for Nepalese industries in general and MSMEs in particular. Therefore, it is important to clarify these concepts to government officials, workers and employers so that efforts can be made in a concerted and coordinated manner. Orientation programmes should clarify the different purposes of RVA and green skills.

  • Training and skills development is important for innovation and the introduction of new technologies but they are neglected in most institutions and organisations. Therefore, greater attention should be paid to training and development, specifically targeting the incorporation of skills recognition.

  • Existing occupational skills standards, curricula and teaching materials should incorporate green skills to strengthen RVA in the workplace.

  • Instructors and teachers should keep up to date about skills for green jobs because the quality of trainees is dependent upon the expertise of trainers and teachers. Therefore, training providers should receive help in organising professional development for their instructors on promoting green skills for the green economy.

  • It is imperative that monitoring mechanisms of government are used to implement existing legislation more effectively. This would, therefore, encourage employers and industrialists to follow the existing rules and regulations.

  • The current NSTB (NVQA in future) should coordinate with related ministries/departments, professional associations and trade unions to prepare systematic guidelines and tools to recognise green skills as part of workplace learning in alignment with the national skills certification system. This would facilitate recognition, validation and certification processes and it would increase the chances of receiving financial support for the RVA of green skills in the workplace.

  • Staff training programmes in enterprises should create awareness about the importance of green skills and their inclusion in RVA. These programmes should be in partnership with governmental agencies, enterprises and international and national non-governmental organisations.

  • The government should provide incentives to the enterprises to motivate environmental-friendly practices and their recognition.