Abstract
In this chapter, recent advances in computational modeling of respiratory droplets in indoor environments in connection with the aerosol transmission of COVID-19 are presented. In addition, the available literature on respiratory droplet emission by speaking, coughing, and sneezing are reviewed. The computational modeling approach for simulation of airflows and droplet and particle motions in a ventilated environment is described in layman’s terms. Examples of dispersion and transport of respiratory droplets emitted due to coughing and speaking in a classroom, in a subway train compartment, and in small and large ventilated office spaces are presented. Finally, the filtration effects of wearing masks and their influence on reducing our chances of exposure are described.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
WHO. (2021). Retrieved from https://www.who.int/
CDC. (2021). Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/
Bourouiba, L., Dehandschoewercker, E., & Bush, J. W. M. (2014). Violent expiratory events: On coughing and sneezing. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 745, 537–563.
Nicas, M., Nazaroff, W. W., & Hubbard, A. (2005). Toward understanding the risk of secondary airborne infection: Emission of respirable pathogens. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, 2, 143–154.
Noakes, C. J., Beggs, C. B., Sleigh, P. A., & Kerr, K. G. (2006). Modelling the transmission of airborne infections in enclosed spaces. Epidemiology and Infection, 134, 1082–1091.
Stilianakis, N. I., & Drossinos, Y. (2010). Dynamics of infectious disease transmission by inhalable respiratory droplets. Journal of the Royal Society Interface, 7, 1355–1366.
Buonanno, G., Stabile, L., & Morawska, L. (2020a). Estimation of airborne viral emission: Quanta emission rate of SARS-CoV-2 for infection risk assessment. Environment International, 141, 105794.
Buonanno, G., Morawska, L., & Stabile, L. (2020b). Quantitative assessment of the risk of airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Environment International, 145, 106112.
Asadi, S., Bouvier, N., Wexler, A. S., & Ristenpart, W. D. (2020). The coronavirus pandemic and aerosols: Does COVID-19 transmit via expiratory particles? Aerosol Science and Technology, 54, 635–638.
Morawska, L., & Cao, J. (2020). Airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2: The world should face the reality. Environment International, 139, 105730.
Allen, J. G., & Marr, L. C. (2020). Recognizing and controlling airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in indoor environments. Indoor Air, 30(4), 557.
Zhang, R., Li, Y., Zhang, A. L., Wang, Y., & Molina, M. J. (2020). Identifying airborne transmission as the dominant route for the spread of COVID-19. Proceedings. National Academy of Sciences. United States of America, 117, 14857–14863.
Ahmed, T., Wendling, H. E., Mofakham, A. A., Ahmadi, G., Helenbrook, B. T., Ferro, A. R., Brown, D. M., & Erath, B. D. (2021). Variability in expiratory trajectory angles during consonant production by one human subject and from a physical mouth model: application to respiratory droplet emission. Indoor Air, 31, 1896–1912. Retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/ina.12908
Bazant, M. Z., & Bush, J. W. M. (2021). A guideline to limit indoor airborne transmission of COVID-19. PNAS, 118(17), 1–12.
Asadi, S., Wexler, A. S., Cappa, C. D., Barreda, S., Bouvier, N. M., & Ristenpart, W. D. (2019). Aerosol emission and superemission during human speech increase with voice loudness. Scientific Reports, 9(1), 1–10.
Chong, K. L., Ng, C. S., Hori, N., Yang, R., Verzicco, R., & Lohse, D. (2021). Extended lifetime of respiratory droplets in a turbulent vapour puff and its implications on airborne disease transmission. Physical Review Letters, 126, 034502.
Duguid, J. P. (1946). The size and the duration of air-carriage of respiratory droplets and droplet-nuclei. Epidemiology and Infection, 44(6), 471–479.
Han, Z. Y., Weng, W. G., & Huang, Q. Y. (2013). Characterizations of particle size distribution of the droplets exhaled by sneeze. Journal of the Royal Society Interface, 10, 20130560.
Memarzadeh, F. (2011). Improved strategy to control aerosol-transmitted infections in a hospital suite. In Proceedings of IAQ Conference 2012, Freiburg, Germany, February 2011.
Morawska, L., & Milton, D. K. (2020). It is time to address airborne transmission of COVID-19. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 6, ciaa939.
Papineni, R. S., & Rosenthal, F. S. (1997). The size distribution of droplets in the exhaled breath of healthy human subjects. Journal of Aerosol Medicine, 10, 105–116.
Scheuch, G. (2020). Breathing is enough: For the spread of influenza virus and SARS–CoV-2 by breathing only. Journal of Aerosol Medicine and Pulmonary Drug Delivery, 33(4), 230–234.
Xie, X., Li, Y., Chwang, A. T., Ho, P., & Seto, W. (2007). How far droplets can move in indoor environments–revisiting the Wells evaporation-falling curve. Indoor Air, 17(3), 211–225. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0668.2007.00469.x
Bradley, R. S., Evans, M. G., & Whytlaw-Gray, R. W. (1946). The rate of evaporation of droplets. Evaporation and diffusion coefficients, and vapour pressures of dibutyl phthalate and butyl stearate. Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 186, 368–390. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1946.0050
Langmuir, I. (1918). The evaporation of small spheres. Physics Review, 12, 368–370.
Pirhadi, M., Sajadi, B., Ahmadi, G., & Malekian, D. (2018). Phase change and deposition of inhaled droplets in the human nasal cavity under cyclic inspiratory airflow. Journal of Aerosol Science, 118, 64–81.
Sazhin, S. S. (2006). Advanced models of fuel droplet heating and evaporation. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 32(2), 162–214.
Wells, W. F. (1934). On air-borne infection: Study II. Droplets and droplet nuclei. American Journal of Epidemiology, 20(3), 611–618.
Wells, W. F. (1955). Airborne contagion and air hygiene. an ecological study of droplet infections. In Airborne contagion and air hygiene. An ecological study of droplet infections. Harvard University Press.
Levich, V. (1962). Physicochemical hydrodynamics. Prentice-Hall.
Fuchs, N. A. (1964). The mechanics of aerosols. Pergamon Press.
Mercer, T. T. (1973). Aerosol technology in hazard evaluation of airborne particles. Academic Press.
Twomey, S. (1976). Atmospheric aerosols. Elsevier.
Hinds, W. C. (1982). Aerosol technology, properties, behavior, and measurement of airborne particles. John Wiley and Sons.
Spurny, K. R. (1986). Physical and chemical characterization of individual airborne particles. John Wiley and Sons.
Seinfeld, J. H. (1986). Atmospheric chemistry and physics of air pollution. John Wiley and Sons.
Vincent, J. H. (1995). Aerosol science for industrial hygienists. Pergamon Press.
Tu, J., Inthavong, K., & Ahmadi, G. (2013). Computational fluid and particle dynamics in the human respiratory system. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4488-2
Ahmadi, G., & Goldschmidt, V. W. (1971). Motion of particle in a turbulent fluid-the basset history term. Journal of Applied Mechanics, Transactions ASME, 38, 561–563.
Riley, J. J., & Patterson, G. S., Jr. (1974). Diffusion experiments with numerically integrated isotropic turbulence. Physics of Fluids, 17, 292–297.
Reeks, M. W. (1977). On the dispersion of small particles suspended in an isotropic turbulent flow. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 83, 529–546.
Reeks, M. W., & Mckee, S. (1984). The dispersive effect of basset history forces on particle motion in a turbulent flow. Physics of Fluids, 27, 1573–1582.
Rizk, M. A., & Elghobashi, S. E. (1985). The motion of a spherical particle suspended in a turbulent flow near a plane wall. Physics of Fluids, 20, 806–817.
Maxey, M. R. (1987). The Gravitational settling of aerosol particles in homogeneous turbulence and random flow fields. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 174, 441–445.
Wang, L.-P., & Stock, D. E. (1992). Stochastic trajectory models for turbulent diffusion: Monte-Carlo process versus Markov chains. Atmospheric Environment, 26, 1599–1607.
Wang, L.-P., & Stock, D. E. (1993). Dispersion of heavy particles by turbulent motion. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 50, 1897–1913.
Crowe, C. T. (1982). Review - Numerical models for dilute gas-particle flows. Journal of Fluids Engineering, Transactions of the ASME, 104, 297–303.
Li, A., & Ahmadi, G. (1992). Dispersion and deposition of spherical particles from point sources in a turbulent channel flow. Aerosol Science and Technology, 16(4), 209–226.
Li, A., & Ahmadi, G. (1993a). Deposition of aerosols on surfaces in a turbulent channel flow. International Journal of Engineering Science, 31(3), 435–451.
Li, A., & Ahmadi, G. (1993b). Computer simulation of deposition of aerosols in a turbulent channel flow with rough wall. Aerosol Science and Technology, 18, 11–24.
He, C., & Ahmadi, G. (1999). Particle deposition in a nearly developed turbulent duct flow with electrophoresis. Journal of Aerosol Science, 30, 739–758.
Friedlander, S. K., & Johnstone, H. F. (1957). Deposition of suspended particles from turbulent gas streams. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 49, 1151.
Davies, C. N. (1966). Aerosol science. Academic Press.
Sehmel, G. A. (1973). Particle eddy diffusities and deposition velocities for isothermal flow and smooth surfaces. Journal of Aerosol Science, 4, 125–138.
Wood, N. B. (1981). A simple method for calculation of turbulent deposition to smooth and rough surfaces. Journal of Aerosol Science, 12, 275–290.
Fernandez de la Mora, J., & Friedlander, S. K. (1982). Aerosol and gas deposition to fully rough surfaces: Filtration model for blade-shaped elements. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 25, 1725–1735.
Cleaver, J. W., & Yates, B. (1975). A sub layer model for the deposition of particles from a turbulent flow. Chemical Engineering Science, 30, 983–992.
Fichman, M., Gutfinger, C., & Pnueli, D. (1988). A model for turbulent deposition of aerosols. Journal of Aerosol Science, 19, 123–136.
Fan, F. G., & Ahmadi, G. (1993). A sublayer model for turbulent deposition of particles in vertical ducts with smooth and rough surfaces. Journal of Aerosol Science, 24, 45–64.
Fan, F. G., & Ahmadi, G. (1994). On the sublayer model for turbulent deposition of aerosol particles in the presence of gravity and electric fields. Aerosol Science and Technology, 21, 49–71.
Fan, F., & Ahmadi, G. (1995). A sublayer model for wall deposition of ellipsoidal particles in turbulent stream. Journal of Aerosol Science, 25, 813–840.
Papavergos, P. G., & Hedley, A. B. (1984). Particle deposition behavior from turbulent flow. Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 62, 275–295.
Kvasnak, W., & Ahmadi, G. (1996). Deposition of ellipsoidal particles in turbulent duct flows. Chemical Engineering Science, 51, 5137–5148.
Kvasnak, W., Ahmadi, G., Bayer, R., & Gaynes, M. A. (1993). Experimental investigation of dust particle deposition in a turbulent channel flow. Journal of Aerosol Science, 24, 795–815.
Inthavong, K., Ge, Q. J., Li, X. D., & Tu, J. Y. (2012). Detailed predictions of particle aspiration affected by respiratory inhalation and airflow. Atmospheric Environment, 62, 107–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.07.071
Li, X. D., Inthavong, K., Ge, Q. J., & Tu, J. Y. (2013). Numerical investigation of particle transport and inhalation using standing thermal manikins. Building and Environment, 60(2013), 116–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2012.11.014
Naseri, A., Abouali, O., & Ahmadi, G. (2017). Effect of turbulent thermal plume on aspiration efficiency of microparticles. Building and Environment, 118, 159–172.
Azhdari, M., Tavakol, M. M., & Ahmadi, G. (2021). Particle inhalability of a standing mannequin with large airways in a ventilated room. Computers in Biology and Medicine, 138(104858), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compbiomed.2021.104858
Bahmanzadeh, H., Abouali, O., & Ahmadi, G. (2016). Unsteady particle tracking of micro-particle deposition in the human nasal cavity under cyclic inspiratory flow. Journal of Aerosol Science, 101, 86–103.
Ghahramani, E., Abouali, O., Emdad, H., & Ahmadi, G. (2017). Numerical investigation of turbulent airflow and microparticle deposition in a realistic model of human upper airway using LES. Computers and Fluids, 157, 43–54.
Tavakol, M. M., Ghahramani, E., Abouali, O., Yaghoubi, M., & Ahmadi, G. (2017). Deposition fraction of ellipsoidal fibers in a model of human nasal cavity for laminar and turbulent flows. Journal of Aerosol Science, 113, 52–70.
ANSYS. (2017). ANSYS-fluent theory guide 18.0. Ansys Inc.
Durbin, P. (1993). A Reynolds stress model for near-wall turbulence. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 249, 465–498.
Hanjalić, K., & Launder, B. (1972). A Reynolds stress model of turbulence and its application to thin shear flows. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 52(4), 609–638.
Pope, S. B. (2000). Turbulent flows. Cambridge University Press.
Tian, L., & Ahmadi, G. (2007). Particle deposition in turbulent duct flows - Comparisons of different model predictions. Journal of Aerosol Science, 38, 377–397.
Lesieur, M., MĂ©tais, O., & Comte, P. (2005). Large-eddy simulations of turbulence. Cambridge University Press.
Rogallo, R. S., & Moin, P. (1984). Numerical simulation of turbulent flows. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, 16(1), 99–137.
Sagaut, P. (2006). Large eddy simulation for incompressible flows: An introduction. Springer Science & Business Media.
Salmanzadeh, M., Rahnama, M., & Ahmadi, G. (2010). Effect of sub-grid scales on large eddy simulation of particle deposition in a turbulent channel flow. Aerosol Science and Technology, 44, 796–806.
Kim, J., Moin, P., & Moser, R. (1987). Turbulence statistics in fully developed channel flow at low Reynolds number. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 177, 133–166.
McLaughlin, J. B. (1989). Aerosol particle deposition in numerically simulated channel flow. Physics of Fluids A: Fluid Dynamics (1989–1993), 1(7), 1211–1224.
Moser, R. D., Kim, J., & Mansour, N. N. (1999). Direct numerical simulation of turbulent channel flow up to Re τ= 590. Physics of Fluids, 11(4), 943–945.
Nasr, H., Ahmadi, G., & McLaughlin, J. B. (2009). A DNS study of effects of particle–particle collisions and two-way coupling on particle deposition and phasic fluctuations. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 640, 507–536.
Ounis, H., Ahmadi, G., & McLaughlin, J. B. (1993). Brownian particle deposition in a directly simulated turbulent channel flow. Physics of Fluids A: Fluid Dynamics, 5(6), 1427–1432.
Thatcher, T. L., Lai, A. C., Moreno-Jackson, R., Sextro, R. G., & Nazaroff, W. W. (2002). Effects of room furnishings and air speed on particle deposition rates indoors. Atmospheric Environment, 36(11), 1811–1819. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(02)00157-7
Chen, F., Simon, C. M., & Lai, A. C. (2006). Modeling particle distribution and deposition in indoor environments with a new drift–flux model. Atmospheric Environment, 40(2), 357–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.09.044
Inthavong, K., Tian, Z. F., & Tu, J. Y. (2009). Effect of ventilation design on removal of particles in woodturning workstations. Building and Environment, 44(1), 125–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2008.02.002
Zhao, B., & Guan, P. (2007). Modeling particle dispersion in personalized ventilated room. Building and Environment, 42(3), 1099–1109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.11.009
Gao, N. P., & Niu, J. L. (2007). Modeling particle dispersion and deposition in indoor environments. Atmospheric Environment, 41(18), 3862–3876. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.01.016
Ahmadzadeh, M., Farokhi, E., & Shams, M. (2021). Investigating the effect of air conditioning on the distribution and transmission of COVID-19 virus particles. Journal of Cleaner Production, 316(128147), 1–23.
Liu, H., He, S., Shen, L., & Hong, J. (2021). Simulation-based study of COVID-19 outbreak associated with air-conditioning in a restaurant. Physics of Fluids, 33(2), 023301. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0040188
Abuhegazy, M., Talaat, K., Anderoglu, O., & Poroseva, S. V. (2020). Numerical investigation of aerosol transport in a classroom with relevance to COVID-19. Physics of Fluids, 32(10), 103311. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0029118
Mirzaie, M., Lakzian, S., Khan, A., Ebrahimi Warkiani, M., Mahian, O., & Ahmadi, G. (2021). COVID-19 spread in a classroom equipped with partition – A CFD approach. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 420(126587), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.126587
Satheesan, M. K., Mui, K. W., & Wong, L. T. (2020). A numerical study of ventilation strategies for infection risk mitigation in general inpatient wards. In Building simulation (pp. 1–10). Tsinghua University Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12273-020-0623-4
Borro, L., Mazzei, L., Raponi, M., Piscitelli, P., Miani, A., & Secinaro, A. (2021). The role of air conditioning in the diffusion of Sars-CoV-2 in indoor environments: A first computational fluid dynamic model, based on investigations performed at the Vatican State Children’s hospital. Environmental Research, 193, 110343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.110343
Cui, F., Geng, X., Zervaki, O., Dionysiou, D. D., Katz, J., Haig, S. J., & Boufadel, M. (2021). Transport and fate of virus-laden particles in a supermarket: recommendations for risk reduction of COVID-19 spreading. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 147(4), 04021007. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0001870
Balachandar, S., Zaleski, S., Soldati, A., Ahmadi, G., & Bourouiba, L. (2020). Host-to-host airborne transmission as a multiphase flow problem for science-based social distance guidelines. International Journal of Multiphase Flow, 132(103439), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmultiphaseflow.2020.103439
Obeid, O., Rawat, M. S., White, P., Rosati Rowe, J., Ferro, A., & Ahmadi, G. (2021). Respiratory droplet emissions and transport estimates using CFD for a nine-person, cubicle-style office. In American Association for Aerosol Research, AAAR 39th Annual Conference, Virtual Conference, October 18–22. Retrieved from https://www.aaar.org/2021/program/
Fabian, P., McDevitt, J. J., DeHaan, W. H., Fung, R. O. P., Cowling, B. J., Chan, K. H., Leung, G. M., & Milton, D. K. (2008). Influenza virus in human exhaled breath: an observational study. PLoS One, 3, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0002691
Marchioli, C., & Soldati, A. (2002). Mechanisms for particle transfer and segregation in a turbulent boundary layer. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 468, 283–315.
Marchioli, C., Picciotto, M., & Soldati, A. (2007). Influence of gravity and lift on particle velocity statistics and transfer rates in turbulent vertical channel flow. International Journal of Multiphase Flow, 33(3), 227–251.
Zhang, H., & Ahmadi, G. (2000). Aerosol particle transport and deposition in vertical and horizontal turbulent duct flows. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 406, 55–80.
Chen, M., & McLaughlin, J. B. (1995). A new correlation for the aerosol deposition rate in vertical ducts. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 169(2), 437–455.
Mofakham, A. A., & Ahmadi, G. (2019). Particles dispersion and deposition in inhomogeneous turbulent flows using continuous random walk models. Physics of Fluids, 31(8), 083301. 1–13.
Mofakham, A. A., & Ahmadi, G. (2020a). On random walk models for simulation of particle-laden turbulent flows. International Journal of Multiphase Flow, 122(103157), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmultiphaseflow.2019.103157
Mofakham, A. A., & Ahmadi, G. (2020b). Improved discrete random walk stochastic model for simulating particle dispersion and deposition in inhomogeneous turbulent flows. Journal of Fluids Engineering, 142, 101401-1–101401-14. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4047538
Morawska, L. (2006). Droplet fate in indoor environments, or can we prevent the spread of infection? Indoor Air, 16, 335–347.
Yang, L., Li, X., Yan, Y., & Tu, J. (2018). Effects of cough-jet on airflow and contaminant transport in an airliner cabin section. The Journal of Computational Multiphase Flows, 10(2), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/1757482X17746920
Feng, Y., Marchal, T., Sperry, T., & Yi, H. (2020). Influence of wind and relative humidity on the social distancing effectiveness to prevent COVID-19 airborne transmission: A numerical study. Journal of Aerosol Science, 147(105585), 1–19.
Tu, J., Inthavong, K., & Wong, K. K. L. (2015). Geometric model reconstruction. In Computational hemodynamics—Theory, modelling and applications. Springer.
Dong, J., Inthavong, K., & Tu, J. (2017). Multiphase flows in biomedical applications. In G. H. Yeoh (Ed.), Handbook of multiphase flow science and technology. Springer.
Dong, J., Tian, L., & Ahmadi, G. (2019). Numerical assessment of respiratory airway exposure risks to diesel exhaust particles. Experimental and Computational Multiphase Flow, 1, 51–59. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42757-019-0005-2
Masoomi, M. A., Salmanzadeh, M., & Ahmadi, G. (2021). Dispersion of droplets emitted during speaking in a ventilated indoor environment. In FEDSM2021-65837, V003T08A017, Proceedings of the ASME 2021 Fluids Engineering Division Summer Meeting, FEDSM2021 Virtual Conference, Online, August 10–12, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1115/FEDSM2021-65837. Retrieved from https://event.asme.org/FEDSM-2021
Ahmadzadeh, M., & Shams, M. (2021). Passenger exposure to respiratory aerosols in a train cabin: Effects of window, injection source, output flow location. Sustainable Cities and Society, 75(103280), 1–16.
Hejazi, M., Sadrizadeh, S., Ahmadi, G., & Abouali, O. (2021). Numerical simulation of the COVID-19 airborne transmission in trains. In Proceedings of the ASME 2021 Fluids Engineering Division Summer Meeting, FEDSM2021 Virtual Conference, Online, August 10–12, 2021.
Rawat, M. S., Obeid, O., White, P., Rosati Rowe, J., Ahmadi, G., & Ferro, A. (2021). Comparison of CFD model and one-compartment materials balance model for predicting 8-Hr exposure to pathogen-laden expiratory droplets in a two-person office. In American Association for Aerosol Research, AAAR 39th Annual Conference, Virtual Conference. October 18–22. Retrieved from https://www.aaar.org/2021/program/
Grinshpun, S. A., Haruta, H., Eninger, R. M., Reponen, T., McKay, R. T., & Lee, S. A. (2009). Performance of an N95 filtering facepiece particulate respirator and a surgical mask during human breathing: Two pathways for particle penetration. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, 6(10), 593–603.
Loeb, M., Dafoe, N., Mahony, J., John, M., Sarabia, A., Glavin, V., Webby, R., Smieja, M., Earn, D. J., Chong, S., Webb, A., & Walter, S. D. (2009). Surgical mask vs. N95 respirator for preventing influenza among health care workers: A randomized trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 302(17), 1865–1871.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). (1997). 42 CFR 84 Respiratory Protective Devices: Final Rules and Notice. 60. Federal Register: 110.
Qian, Y., Willeke, K., Grinshpun, S. A., Donnelly, J., & Coffey, C. C. (1998). Performance of N95 respirators: Filtration efficiency for airborne microbial and inert particles. American Industrial Hygiene Association, 59(2), 128–132.
Lipp, A., & Edwards, P. (2012). Disposable surgical face masks for preventing surgical wound infection in clean surgery. Sao Paulo Medical Journal, 130(4), 269. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD002929
Zhang, X., Li, H., Shen, S., & Cai, M. (2016). Investigation of the flow-field in the upper respiratory system when wearing n95 filtering facepiece respirator. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, 13(5), 372–382.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Ahmadi, G. (2022). Computational Modeling of Aerosol Transmission of COVID-19. In: Barry, D., Kanematsu, H. (eds) Studies to Combat COVID-19 using Science and Engineering. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1356-3_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1356-3_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-19-1355-6
Online ISBN: 978-981-19-1356-3
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)