Abstract
Even though not yet declared an aging society, Indonesia’s demographic transition is rapidly approaching that status. The numbers of the elderly continue to rise and at an ever-higher rate. As is the case elsewhere in the world, life expectancy for women is higher than for men, and the sex ratio which starts to favor males at birth reverses to favor women, currently only starting around retirement age and rising rapidly thereafter. While aging is a general concern of governments, the gender bias is not necessarily being attended to. It is the purpose of this paper to shed light on the gender bias and the consequences thereof on the ability of the elderly to access necessary services in their living arrangements, to close with a finding of the family being the main source of care.
Greatly appreciate Faizal Moeis, a research assistant at the Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Indonesia, for his invaluable assistance in data processing, without which this paper could not have come into being.
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Notes
- 1.
Contrary to initial expectations, there is apparently no general agreement on a fixed definition of aging. The United Nations’ definition of aging has changed over time. As recent as 2017 the United Nations defined aging in terms of age 60. But then, only two years later, the 2019 United Nations report defines aging in terms of age 65 and over. They also note arbitrariness in the definition. Until today, while some countries refer to aging as the share of the population aged 60 and over, developed countries consider people elderly when they reach 65 years, in line with official retirement age. On another indicator, a country is defined as ‘aging’ when the share of the population aged 65 and older exceeds 7%, a population is said ‘aged’ when the proportion exceeds 14%, and it is labeled ‘super aged’ when the share reaches more than 20%. In 2019, Duffin recorded already 20 countries to have the share of their population 20% or more. As the share of the elderly continues to rise, we can expect further adjustments in the definition.
- 2.
- 3.
- 4.
This idea of the millions of missing women as a consequence of son preference, combined with the one-child policy, is a topic of research interest in various parts of China as well as other strongly patrilineal and patriarchal societies in other countries of Asia in Anderson & Ray, 2010; Ebenstein, 2013; Ebenstein & Leung, 2010; Quanbao et al., 2013; Shi & Kennedy, 2016; Attané, 2006; Zhu et al., 2009, Hesketh, 2009; Gupta, 2018; Junhong, 2011).
- 5.
Most likely as portrayed by Pearl S. Buck in her various novels on the Chinese family, one of them, The Good Earth (1931). Albeit no longer common, this tradition can still be found in Indonesia.
- 6.
Based on the World Bank database, retrieved in 2017 and 2019 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty_in_China.
- 7.
Especially among infants and under-fives.
- 8.
According to the latest count by the Coordinating Ministry for Maritime Affairs and Investments dated December 2019.
- 9.
The author knows a Minangkabau family with six children, of which four are female. Yet, the daughters were either not married or did not produce offspring and thus also no daughters. And consequently, the family is said to be punah, and it has become extinct.
- 10.
Available references recording numbers of ethnic groups that vary greatly, from more than 300 to 1,340 according to the 2010 Population Census, or some 633 (Wikipedia https://www.google.com/search?client=firefox-bd&q=Number+of+ethnic+groups+in+Indonesia).
- 11.
I remember the story of a colleague who went to the USA for further education, who, when arriving at the LaGuardia airport in the early 1960s, was asked her “first name” responded “Kadariah” and next when asked her “last name” responded “none”. As a result, in USA archives, she became known as Kadariah None. (None in Indonesian means miss).
- 12.
Modernization is occurring in all walks of life, including naming of children. In the past, one could associate names with ethnicity, which is far less likely today. In fact, few of the names of students in one of my classes sound typical and easily associated with a particular ethnic group. I now find my students’ names consisting of 3–4 words, with no family name, common among both male and female students.
- 13.
According to the World Population Review latest adjustment of February 17, 2020, Moslems are found in 210 countries around the world. In 72 countries, there are more than 1 million followers, in 31 countries, there are more than 10 million, in four countries, there are more than 100 million and even more than 200 million, like Indonesia. In 29 countries, more than 90% of their population are followers of the Islamic faith, and in another addition 16 countries, they constitute more than half the population.
- 14.
As measured in terms of the total fertility rate, which stands at 2.32 children per woman of reproductive ages for Indonesia and 3.38 for Pakistan (World Bank Database, downloaded 19 April 2020 at https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/total-fertility-rate/).
- 15.
Which means that they can have had more than four wives over their lifetime.
- 16.
This is not a universal rule in Indonesia, which is rich in variation, including the variation of gender relations in the family and household. This is exemplified by the Acehnese where Shari’ah law prevails (Kusujiarti et al., 2015). Culturally, the Acehnese are also followers of a bi-lineal system but with very different gender relations, where the public sphere is allocated to men and the private space to women, who should remain “invisible” and have no right to be in the street (Mernissi, 2003). This cultural norm affects the husband–wife relation as experienced by the author: During a meeting in Banda Aceh after the 2004 Christmas Tsunami, the author spoke to a male Acehnese, who claimed that was not possible in Aceh. Men keep their earnings, and they make most household decisions, including household expenditures, which are consistent with the norm that women are limited to the private sphere remain invisible. Consequently, contrary to the situation in traditional Javanese markets which are dominated by women as both sellers and buyers, in Aceh, it is all men.
- 17.
Some years ago, there were limited employment opportunities available. The civil service became the dominant source of formal sector jobs mainly occupied by men with low levels of wages and salaries. These were compensated with activities supplements, like for instance to attend meetings or travel somewhere, usually handed over in envelopes, and combined could well exceed their salaries. At the time, jokes were expressed as salaries going to their wives, and the envelope money was cigarette money to be kept by men.
- 18.
Maybe anecdotal but corroborated by these data is the author’s personal experience at the death of her husband was visited by quite a number of elderly women who came alone to the wake, not because their husbands could not make it but rather that they were already widowed.
- 19.
One consequence of this regulation is that within a household, which is socially acknowledged as a nuclear family consisting of one male father, one female mother, and their children, but is legally split into two families, as experienced by the author.
- 20.
Transportation was relatively underdeveloped until the end of the last century.
- 21.
This idea held by the author is based on personal experiences in the family, friends, and acquaintances (expressed in Box 1). This is a valuable lesson not to just rely on anecdotal and personal experiences, but it is always better to check with available data.
- 22.
Notice that there are no elderly living in institutions like old people’s homes, because the survey that does not cover institutions. The data collection unit of the survey is the household.
- 23.
While there are state-run and private old people’s homes in the country, when possible, children are more likely to take care of the elderly parents.
- 24.
- 25.
- 26.
As a matter of fact, home ownership rates are only published for about one of four countries. According to the World Population Review (https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/how-many-countries-are-there/), there are a total of 197 countries, consisting of 193 UN member countries, two UN observers (Holy See (Vatican) and Palestine), and two self-governed territories (Taiwan and Kosovo).
- 27.
Noticeably, we have placed the lower age limit of adults to 20 years. The reason for this cut-off is the current working definition of childhood, which ends at age 18 years, adopted by the United Nations in the Convention of the Child since November 30, 1989, and ratified by the Indonesian Government on September 24, 2012. It is since then that issues on children, like age at marriage if before age 18 are currently referred to as child marriage, draw the attention of the feminist movement.
- 28.
Millennials are here defined as aged 20–39 with post-secondary education. They constitute 16% of the age group.
- 29.
Some of course with loans from well-known international banks.
- 30.
The Western part of the Indonesian capital city of Jakarta is serviced by a joint company between the local government and an international company, here called PT Pam Lyonnaise Jaya, better known as Palyja. The company is under a current contract starting on February 1, 1998 for a 25 years cooperation agreement with PAM Jaya, to end in the not-too-distant future, which, given the trend is questionable to continue.
- 31.
Unlike in the past when the poor felt helpless against disease and death, today there is greater awareness of how it can be prevented. We suggest that this is a function of rising education. School enrolment among elementary aged youngsters (7–12 years) is practically universal at more than 99, 95% among lower secondary school-aged youngsters (13–15 years), and 72% among upper secondary aged youth (16–18 years). This means that even upper secondary aged youngsters in rural areas are increasingly also attending school. We suggest that it is this rising education which introduces the populace to an awareness about health, what it takes to be healthy and that morbidity and mortality can be prevented.
- 32.
Currently, still based on personal and friend’s experiences as no wider survey data are as yet available.
- 33.
There is a dearth of studies on this declining trend in piped water connections and thus no information on reasons for this trend.
- 34.
In fact, pump water users can be differentiated between the majority of those who rely on surface wells, and a few others have dug far deeper artesian wells. This is a difference in investment and resulting quality of water. Deep wells produce clean and clear water, believed to be the best quality water besides bottled water.
- 35.
According to the 2018 National Labor Force Survey, participation among 15 + males stood at 83% while for females only 52%. Of these, males are also more likely absorbed in the formal sector with 46% while only 38% among females (BPS, 2018).
- 36.
The latest update is Government Regulation No. 18 of 2019 Establishing the Basic Pension for Civil Servants and their Spouses.
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Oey-Gardiner, M. (2021). WHO CARES? Challenges of Women Aging in Contemporary Indonesia. In: Shankardass, M.K. (eds) Older Women and Well-Being. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4605-8_10
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