Abstract
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) originated from severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) which has been affecting numerous people in many countries. Many patients have been involved with various disorders and complications like acute lung injury (ALI) and cytokine storm leading to mortality in severe cases. Consequently, this disaster has propelled scientists and pharmaceutical companies to develop practical vaccines and employ the drug repurposing approach to inhibit the disease. Taking the biology and pathogenesis stages of the SARS-CoV-2 infection into account, it is demonstrated that COVID-19 is associated with direct damages induced by the virus, besides the host inflammatory and immune responses. Accordingly, this chapter is planned to sequentially discuss the biology of SARS-CoV-2 and the stages of the virus pathogenesis.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, Li X, Yang B, Song J, Zhao X, Huang B, Shi W, Lu R (2020) A novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China, 2019. New Engl J Med
M. Nicola, Z. Alsafi, C. Sohrabi, A. Kerwan, A. Al-Jabir, C. Iosifidis, M. Agha, R. Agha, The socio-economic implications of the coronavirus and COVID-19 pandemic: a review. Int J Surg (2020)
Maurya VK, Kumar S, Bhatt ML, Saxena SK (2020) Therapeutic development and drugs for the treatment of COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Springer, pp 109–126
Tu Y-F, Chien C-S, Yarmishyn AA, Lin Y-Y, Luo Y-H, Lin Y-T, Lai W-Y, Yang D-M, Chou S-J, Yang Y-P (2020) A review of SARS-CoV-2 and the ongoing clinical trials. Int J Mol Sci 21(7):2657
Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, Niu P, Yang B, Wu H, Wang W, Song H, Huang B, Zhu N (2020) Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding. The Lancet 395(10224):565–574
Singhal T (2020) A review of coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19). Indian J Pediatr 1–6
Kumar GV, Jeyanthi V, Ramakrishnan S (2020) A short review on antibody therapy for COVID-19. New Microbes New Infect 100682
Harapan H, Itoh N, Yufika A, Winardi W, Keam S, Te H, Megawati D, Hayati Z, Wagner AL, Mudatsir M (2020) Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a literature review. J Infect Public Health
Zhou M, Zhang X, Qu J (2020) Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a clinical update. Front Med 1–10
Jin Y, Yang H, Ji W, Wu W, Chen S, Zhang W, Duan G (2020) Virology, epidemiology, pathogenesis, and control of COVID-19. Viruses 12(4):372
Chen Y, Liu Q, Guo D (2020) Emerging coronaviruses: genome structure, replication, and pathogenesis. J Med Virol 92(4):418–423
Lai C-C, Shih T-P, Ko W-C, Tang H-J, Hsueh P-R (2020) Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and corona virus disease-2019 (COVID-19): the epidemic and the challenges. Int J Antimicrob Agents 105924
Guo Y-R, Cao Q-D, Hong Z-S, Tan Y-Y, Chen S-D, Jin H-J, Tan K-S, Wang D-Y, Yan Y (2020) The origin, transmission and clinical therapies on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak–an update on the status. Military Med Res 7(1):1–10
WHO (2021) COVID-19 weekly epidemiological update. https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/situation-reports/. Accessed 6 Jan 2021
Sun P, Lu X, Xu C, Sun W, Pan B (2020) Understanding of COVID-19 based on current evidence. J Med Virol 92(6):548–551
Ita K (2020) Coronavirus DIsease (COVID-19): current status and prospects for drug and vaccine development. Arch Med Res
Giovane RA, Rezai S, Cleland E, Henderson CE (2020) Current pharmacological modalities for management of novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and the rationale for their utilization: a review. Rev Med Virol 30(5):
Jamwal S, Gautam A, Elsworth J, Kumar M, Chawla R, Kumar P (2020) An updated insight into the molecular pathogenesis, secondary complications and potential therapeutics of COVID-19 pandemic. Life Sci 118105
Chary MA, Barbuto AF, Izadmehr S, Hayes BD, Burns MM (2020) COVID-19: therapeutics and their toxicities. J Med Toxicol 16(3):101007
Wu R, Wang L, Kuo H-CD, Shannar A, Peter R, Chou PJ, Li S, Hudlikar R, Liu X, Liu Z (2020) An update on current therapeutic drugs treating COVID-19. Curr Pharmacol Rep 1
Salvi R, Patankar P (2020) Emerging pharmacotherapies for COVID-19. Biomed Pharmacotherapy 110267
Zhang Y, Xu Q, Sun Z, Zhou L (2020) Current targeted therapeutics against COVID-19: based on first-line experience in china. Pharmacol Res 104854
Vellingiri B, Jayaramayya K, Iyer M, Narayanasamy A, Govindasamy V, Giridharan B, Ganesan S, Venugopal A, Venkatesan D, Ganesan H (2020) COVID-19: a promising cure for the global panic. Sci Total Environ 138277
Sohrabi C, Alsafi Z, O’Neill N, Khan M, Kerwan A, Al-Jabir A, Iosifidis C, Agha R (2020) World Health Organization declares global emergency: a review of the 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19). Int J Surg
Taylor D (2015) The pharmaceutical industry and the future of drug development
Singh TU, Parida S, Lingaraju MC, Kesavan M, Kumar D, Singh RK (2020) Drug repurposing approach to fight COVID-19. Pharmacol Rep 1–30
Shah B, Modi P, Sagar SR (2020) In silico studies on therapeutic agents for COVID-19: drug repurposing approach. Life Sci 117652
Alnefaie A, Albogami S (2020) Current approaches used in treating COVID-19 from a molecular mechanisms and immune response perspective. Saudi Pharm J
Sanders JM, Monogue ML, Jodlowski TZ, Cutrell JB (2020) Pharmacologic treatments for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a review. JAMA 323(18):1824–1836
Xian Y, Zhang J, Bian Z, Zhou H, Zhang Z, Lin Z, Xu H (2020) Bioactive natural compounds against human coronaviruses: a review and perspective. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica B
Artika IM, Dewantari AK, Wiyatno A (2020) Molecular biology of coronaviruses: current knowledge. Heliyon e04743
C.S.G. of the International (2020) The species Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus: classifying 2019-nCoV and naming it SARS-CoV-2. Nat Microbiol 5(4):536
Paules CI, Marston HD, Fauci AS (2020) Coronavirus infections—more than just the common cold. JAMA 323(8):707–708
Rabaan AA, Al-Ahmed SH, Haque S, Sah R, Tiwari R, Malik YS, Dhama K, Yatoo MI, Bonilla-Aldana DK, Rodriguez-Morales AJ (2020) SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, and MERS-CoV: a comparative overview. Infez Med 28(2):174–184
V’kovski P, Kratzel A, Steiner S, Stalder H, Thiel V (2020) Coronavirus biology and replication: implications for SARS-CoV-2. Nat Rev Microbiol 1–16
Wang L-S, Wang Y-R, Ye D-W, Liu Q-Q (2020) A review of the 2019 Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) based on current evidence. Int J Antimicrob Agents 105948
Petrosillo N, Viceconte G, Ergonul O, Ippolito G, Petersen E (2020) COVID-19, SARS and MERS: are they closely related? Clin Microbiol Infect (2020)
L. Mousavizadeh, S. Ghasemi, Genotype and phenotype of COVID-19: Their roles in pathogenesis, Journal of Microbiology, Immunology and Infection (2020)
van Boheemen S, de Graaf M, Lauber C, Bestebroer TM, Raj VS, Zaki AM, Osterhaus AD, Haagmans BL, Gorbalenya AE, Snijder EJ (2012) Genomic characterization of a newly discovered coronavirus associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome in humans. MBio 3(6)
Masters PS (2006) The molecular biology of coronaviruses. Adv Virus Res 66:193–292
Ou X, Liu Y, Lei X, Li P, Mi D, Ren L, Guo L, Guo R, Chen T, Hu J (2020) Characterization of spike glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2 on virus entry and its immune cross-reactivity with SARS-CoV. Nat Commun 11(1):1–12
Tortorici MA, Walls AC, Lang Y, Wang C, Li Z, Koerhuis D, Boons G-J, Bosch B-J, Rey FA, de Groot RJ (2019) Structural basis for human coronavirus attachment to sialic acid receptors. Nat Struct Mol Biol 26(6):481–489
Shang J, Ye G, Shi K, Wan Y, Luo C, Aihara H, Geng Q, Auerbach A, Li F (2020) Structural basis of receptor recognition by SARS-CoV-2. Nature 581(7807):221–224
Hulswit R, De Haan C, Bosch B-J (2016) Coronavirus spike protein and tropism changes. Adv Virus Res 29–57
Kuo L, Hurst KR, Masters PS (2007) Exceptional flexibility in the sequence requirements for coronavirus small envelope protein function. J Virol 81(5):2249–2262
Schoeman D, Fielding BC (2019) Coronavirus envelope protein: current knowledge. Virol J 16(1):1–22
Du Y, Zuckermann FA, Yoo D (2010) Myristoylation of the small envelope protein of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus is non-essential for virus infectivity but promotes its growth. Virus Res 147(2):294–299
Ruch TR, Machamer CE (2012) The coronavirus E protein: assembly and beyond. Viruses 4(3):363–382
Heinz F, Collett M, Purcell R, Gould E, Howard C, Van Regenmortel MHV, Fauquet CM, Bishop DHL, Carstens EB, Estes MK et al (2000) Virus taxonomy. In: Seventh Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Academic Press, San Diego, pp 859–878
Wu Q, Zhang Y, Lü H, Wang J, He X, Liu Y, Ye C, Lin W, Hu J, Ji J (2003) The E protein is a multifunctional membrane protein of SARS-CoV. Genom Proteomics Bioinformatics 1(2):131–144
McClenaghan C, Hanson A, Lee S-J, Nichols CG (2020) Coronavirus proteins as Ion channels: current and potential research. Front Immunol 11:2651
Sarkar M, Saha S (2020) Structural insight into the role of novel SARS-CoV-2 E protein: a potential target for vaccine development and other therapeutic strategies. PLoS ONE 15(8):
Ujike M, Taguchi F (2015) Incorporation of spike and membrane glycoproteins into coronavirus virions. Viruses 7(4):1700–1725
De Haan CA, Smeets M, Vernooij F, Vennema H, Rottier P (1999) Mapping of the coronavirus membrane protein domains involved in interaction with the spike protein. J Virol 73(9):7441–7452
Arndt AL, Larson BJ, Hogue BG (2010) A conserved domain in the coronavirus membrane protein tail is important for virus assembly. J Virol 84(21):11418–11428
Thomas S (2020) The structure of the membrane protein of SARS-CoV-2 resembles the sugar transporter semiSWEET
Chang C-K, Hou M-H, Chang C-F, Hsiao C-D, Huang T-H (2014) The SARS coronavirus nucleocapsid protein–forms and functions. Antiviral Res 103:39–50
Dutta NK, Mazumdar K, Gordy JT (2020) The nucleocapsid protein of SARS–CoV-2: a target for vaccine development. J Virol 94(13)
Wurm T, Chen H, Hodgson T, Britton P, Brooks G, Hiscox JA (2001) Localization to the nucleolus is a common feature of coronavirus nucleoproteins, and the protein may disrupt host cell division. J Virol 75(19):9345–9356
Surjit M, Liu B, Chow VT, Lal SK (2006) The nucleocapsid protein of severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus inhibits the activity of cyclin-cyclin-dependent kinase complex and blocks S phase progression in mammalian cells. J Biol Chem 281(16):10669–10681
Mu J, Fang Y, Yang Q, Shu T, Wang A, Huang M, Jin L, Deng F, Qiu Y, Zhou X (2020) SARS-CoV-2 N protein antagonizes type I interferon signaling by suppressing phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of STAT1 and STAT2. Cell discovery 6(1):1–4
Kopecky-Bromberg SA, MartÃnez-Sobrido L, Frieman M, Baric RA, Palese P (2007) Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus open reading frame (ORF) 3b, ORF 6, and nucleocapsid proteins function as interferon antagonists. J Virol 81(2):548–557
Yan X, Hao Q, Mu Y, Timani KA, Ye L, Zhu Y, Wu J (2006) Nucleocapsid protein of SARS-CoV activates the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 by binding directly to regulatory elements for nuclear factor-kappa B and CCAAT/enhancer binding protein. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 38(8):1417–1428
Surjit M, Liu B, Jameel S, Chow VT, Lal SK (2004) The SARS coronavirus nucleocapsid protein induces actin reorganization and apoptosis in COS-1 cells in the absence of growth factors. Biochem J 383(1):13–18
Huang Q, Yu L, Petros AM, Gunasekera A, Liu Z, Xu N, Hajduk P, Mack J, Fesik SW, Olejniczak ET (2004) Structure of the N-terminal RNA-binding domain of the SARS CoV nucleocapsid protein. Biochemistry 43(20):6059–6063
Zeng W, Liu G, Ma H, Zhao D, Yang Y, Liu M, Mohammed A, Zhao C, Yang Y, Xie J (2020) Biochemical characterization of SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid protein. Biochem Biophys Res Commun
McBride R, Van Zyl M, Fielding BC (2014) The coronavirus nucleocapsid is a multifunctional protein. Viruses 6(8):2991–3018
Astuti I (2020) Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2): an overview of viral structure and host response. Diab Metabolic Synd Clin Res Rev
Subissi L, Imbert I, Ferron F, Collet A, Coutard B, Decroly E, Canard B (2014) SARS-CoV ORF1b-encoded nonstructural proteins 12–16: replicative enzymes as antiviral targets. Antiviral Res 101:122–130
Zhang W, Zhang P, Wang G, Cheng W, Chen J, Zhang X (2020) Recent advances of therapeutic targets and potential drugs of COVID-19. Die Pharmazie Int J Pharm Sci 75(5):160–162
Zhou P, Yang X-L, Wang X-G, Hu B, Zhang L, Zhang W, Si H-R, Zhu Y, Li B, Huang C-L (2020) A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature 579(7798):270–273
Michel CJ, Mayer C, Poch O, Thompson JD (2020) Characterization of accessory genes in coronavirus genomes
Liu DX, Fung TS, Chong KK-L, Shukla A, Hilgenfeld R (2014) Accessory proteins of SARS-CoV and other coronaviruses. Antiviral Res 109:97–109
Kim D, Lee J-Y, Yang J-S, Kim JW, Kim VN, Chang H (2020) The architecture of SARS-CoV-2 transcriptome. Cell
Tang X, Wu C, Li X, Song Y, Yao X, Wu X, Duan Y, Zhang H, Wang Y, Qian Z (2020) On the origin and continuing evolution of SARS-CoV-2. Natl Sci Rev
Walls AC, Park Y-J, Tortorici MA, Wall A, McGuire AT, Veesler D (2020) Structure, function, and antigenicity of the SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein. Cell
Matsuyama S, Nao N, Shirato K, Kawase M, Saito S, Takayama I, Nagata N, Sekizuka T, Katoh H, Kato F (2020) Enhanced isolation of SARS-CoV-2 by TMPRSS2-expressing cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci 117(13):7001–7003
Santos IDA, Grosche VR, Bergamini FRG, Sabino-Silva R, Jardim AC (2020) Antivirals against coronaviruses: candidate drugs for SARS-coV-2 treatment? Front Microbiol 11:1818
Depfenhart M, de Villiers D, Lemperle G, Meyer M, Di Somma S (2020) Potential new treatment strategies for COVID-19: is there a role for bromhexine as add-on therapy? Internal Emerg Med 1
Tripet B, Howard MW, Jobling M, Holmes RK, Holmes KV, Hodges RS (2004) Structural characterization of the SARS-coronavirus spike S fusion protein core. J Biol Chem 279(20):20836–20849
Li F, Li W, Farzan M, Harrison SC (2005) Structure of SARS coronavirus spike receptor-binding domain complexed with receptor. Science 309(5742):1864–1868
Lip K-M, Shen S, Yang X, Keng C-T, Zhang A, Oh H-LJ, Li Z-H, Hwang L-A, Chou C-F, Fielding BC (2006) Monoclonal antibodies targeting the HR2 domain and the region immediately upstream of the HR2 of the S protein neutralize in vitro infection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. J Virol 80(2):941–950
Lai S-C, Chong PC-S, Yeh C-T, Liu LS-J, Jan J-T, Chi H-Y, Liu H-W, Chen A, Wang Y-C (2005) Characterization of neutralizing monoclonal antibodies recognizing a 15-residues epitope on the spike protein HR2 region of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV). J Biomed Sci 12(5):711–727
Rockx B, Donaldson E, Frieman M, Sheahan T, Corti D, Lanzavecchia A, Baric RS (2010) Escape from human monoclonal antibody neutralization affects in vitro and in vivo fitness of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. J Infect Dis 201(6):946–955
Zhang H, Wang G, Li J, Nie Y, Shi X, Lian G, Wang W, Yin X, Zhao Y, Qu X (2004) Identification of an antigenic determinant on the S2 domain of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus spike glycoprotein capable of inducing neutralizing antibodies. J Virol 78(13):6938–6945
Keng C-T, Zhang A, Shen S, Lip K-M, Fielding BC, Tan TH, Chou C-F, Loh CB, Wang S, Fu J (2005) Amino acids 1055 to 1192 in the S2 region of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus S protein induce neutralizing antibodies: implications for the development of vaccines and antiviral agents. J Virol 79(6):3289–3296
Elshabrawy HA, Coughlin MM, Baker SC, Prabhakar BS (2012) Human monoclonal antibodies against highly conserved HR1 and HR2 domains of the SARS-CoV spike protein are more broadly neutralizing. PLoS ONE 7(11):
Fung TS, Liu DX (2018) Post-translational modifications of coronavirus proteins: roles and function. Future Virol 13(6):405–430
Tai W, He L, Zhang X, Pu J, Voronin D, Jiang S, Zhou Y, Du L (2020) Characterization of the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of 2019 novel coronavirus: implication for development of RBD protein as a viral attachment inhibitor and vaccine. Cell Mol Immunol 17(6):613–620
Vaduganathan M, Vardeny O, Michel T, McMurray JJ, Pfeffer MA, Solomon SD (2020) Renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system inhibitors in patients with Covid-19. N Engl J Med 382(17):1653–1659
Turner AJ (2015) ACE2 cell biology, regulation, and physiological functions. The protective arm of the renin angiotensin system (RAS), p 185
Camargo SM, Vuille-dit-Bille RN, Meier CF, Verrey F (2020) ACE2 and gut amino acid transport. Clin Sci 134(21):2823–2833
Kuba K, Imai Y, Rao S, Gao H, Guo F, Guan B, Huan Y, Yang P, Zhang Y, Deng W (2005) A crucial role of angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) in SARS coronavirus–induced lung injury. Nat Med 11(8):875–879
Imai Y, Kuba K, Penninger JM (2008) The discovery of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 and its role in acute lung injury in mice. Exp Physiol 93(5):543–548
Sarkar C, Mondal M, Torequl Islam M, Martorell M, Docea AO, Maroyi A, Sharifi-Rad J, Calina D (2020) Potential therapeutic options for COVID-19: current status, challenges, and future perspectives. Front. Pharmacol 11:1428
Scavone C, Brusco S, Bertini M, Sportiello L, Rafaniello C, Zoccoli A, Berrino L, Racagni G, Rossi F, Capuano A (2020) Current pharmacological treatments for COVID-19: What’s next? Br J Pharmacol
Luan B, Huynh T, Cheng X, Lan G, Wang H-R (2020) Targeting proteases for treating COVID-19. J Proteome Res 19(11):4316–4326
Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Schroeder S, Krüger N, Herrler T, Erichsen S, Schiergens TS, Herrler G, Wu N-H, Nitsche A (2020) SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor. Cell
Ko C-J, Hsu T-W, Wu S-R, Lan S-W, Hsiao T-F, Lin H-Y, Lin H-H, Tu H-F, Lee C-F, Huang C-C (2020) Inhibition of TMPRSS2 by HAI-2 reduces prostate cancer cell invasion and metastasis. Oncogene 39(37):5950–5963
Luan B, Huynh T, Cheng X, Lan G, Wang H-R (2020) Targeting proteases for treating COVID-19. J Proteome Res
Belouzard S, Chu VC, Whittaker GR (2009) Activation of the SARS coronavirus spike protein via sequential proteolytic cleavage at two distinct sites. Proc Natl Acad Sci 106(14):5871–5876
Tomlins SA, Rhodes DR, Perner S, Dhanasekaran SM, Mehra R, Sun X-W, Varambally S, Cao X, Tchinda J, Kuefer R (2005) Recurrent fusion of TMPRSS2 and ETS transcription factor genes in prostate cancer. Science 310(5748):644–648
Hoffmann M, Schroeder S, Kleine-Weber H, Müller MA, Drosten C, Pöhlmann S (2020) Nafamostat mesylate blocks activation of SARS-CoV-2: new treatment option for COVID-19. Antimicrob Agents Chemotherapy
Mikkonen L, Pihlajamaa P, Sahu B, Zhang F-P, Jänne OA (2010) Androgen receptor and androgen-dependent gene expression in lung. Mol Cell Endocrinol 317(1–2):14–24
Fujimoto T, Tsunedomi R, Matsukuma S, Yoshimura K, Oga A, Fujiwara N, Fujiwara Y, Matsui H, Shindo Y, Tokumitsu Y (2020) Cathepsin B is highly expressed in pancreatic cancer stem-like cells and is associated with patients’ surgical outcomes. Oncol Lett 21(1):1–1
Roshy S, Sloane BF, Moin K (2003) Pericellular cathepsin B and malignant progression. Cancer Metastasis Rev 22(2–3):271–286
Yang N, Shen H-M (2020) Targeting the endocytic pathway and autophagy process as a novel therapeutic strategy in COVID-19. Int J Biol Sci 16(10):1724
Aguiar AC, Murce E, Cortopassi WA, Pimentel AS, Almeida MM, Barros DC, Guedes JS, Meneghetti MR, Krettli AU (2018) Chloroquine analogs as antimalarial candidates with potent in vitro and in vivo activity. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resistance 8(3):459–464
Liu J, Cao R, Xu M, Wang X, Zhang H, Hu H, Li Y, Hu Z, Zhong W, Wang M (2020) Hydroxychloroquine, a less toxic derivative of chloroquine, is effective in inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 infection in vitro. Cell Discov 6(1):1–4
Schrezenmeier E, Dörner T (2020) Mechanisms of action of hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine: implications for rheumatology. Nat Rev Rheumatol 1–12
Yang J-K, Zhao M-M, Yang W-L, Yang F-Y, Zhang L, Huang W, Fan C, Hou W, Jin R, Feng Y (2020) Cathepsin L plays a key role in SARS-CoV-2 infection in humans and humanized mice and is a promising target for new drug development. medRxiv
Zhu Z, Lu Z, Xu T, Chen C, Yang G, Zha T, Lu J, Xue Y (2020) Arbidol monotherapy is superior to lopinavir/ritonavir in treating COVID-19. J Infect 81(1):e21–e23
Cannalire R, Stefanelli I, Cerchia C, Beccari AR, Pelliccia S, Summa V (2020) SARS-CoV-2 entry inhibitors: small molecules and peptides targeting virus or host cells. Int J Mol Sci 21(16):5707
Liu T, Luo S, Libby P, Shi G-P (2020) Cathepsin L-selective inhibitors: a potentially promising treatment for COVID-19 patients. Pharmacol Therap 107587
Fung TS, Liu DX (2019) Human coronavirus: host-pathogen interaction. Annu Rev Microbiol 73:529–557
Van Hemert MJ, Van Den Worm SH, Knoops K, Mommaas AM, Gorbalenya AE, Snijder EJ (2008) SARS-coronavirus replication/transcription complexes are membrane-protected and need a host factor for activity in vitro. PLoS Pathog 4(5):
Qiu Y, Xu K (2020) Functional studies of the coronavirus nonstructural proteins. STEMedicine 1(2):e39–e39
Woo J, Lee EY, Lee M, Kim T, Cho Y-E (2019) An in vivo cell-based assay for investigating the specific interaction between the SARS-CoV N-protein and its viral RNA packaging sequence. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 520(3):499–506
Tang T, Bidon M, Jaimes JA, Whittaker GR, Daniel S (2020) Coronavirus membrane fusion mechanism offers as a potential target for antiviral development. Antiviral Res 104792
Mitra K, Ghanta P, Acharya S, Chakrapani G, Ramaiah B, Doble M (2020) Dual inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 proteases: pharmacophore and molecular dynamics based drug repositioning and phytochemical leads. J Biomol Struct Dyn 1–14
Novak J, Rimac H, Kandagalla S, Pathak P, Grishina M, Potemkin V (2020) Proposition of a new allosteric binding site for potential SARS-CoV-2 3CL protease inhibitors by utilizing molecular dynamics simulations and ensemble docking
Oudshoorn D, Rijs K, Limpens RW, Groen K, Koster AJ, Snijder EJ, Kikkert M, Bárcena M (2017) Expression and cleavage of middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus nsp3-4 polyprotein induce the formation of double-membrane vesicles that mimic those associated with coronaviral RNA replication. MBio 8(6)
Clemente V, D’Arcy P, Bazzaro M (2020) Deubiquitinating enzymes in coronaviruses and possible therapeutic opportunities for COVID-19. Int J Mol Sci 21(10):3492
Ruzicka JA (2020) Identification of the antithrombotic protein S as a potential target of the SARS-CoV-2 papain-like protease. Thromb Res 196:257–259
Huynh T, Wang H, Luan B (2020) In silico exploration of molecular mechanism of clinically oriented drugs for possibly inhibiting SARS-CoV-2’s main protease. J Phys Chem Lett
Lin M-H, Moses DC, Hsieh C-H, Cheng S-C, Chen Y-H, Sun C-Y, Chou C-Y (2018) Disulfiram can inhibit MERS and SARS coronavirus papain-like proteases via different modes. Antiviral Res 150:155–163
Baden LR, Rubin EJ (2020) Covid-19—the search for effective therapy. Mass Medical Soc
Sheahan TP, Sims AC, Leist SR, Schäfer A, Won J, Brown AJ, Montgomery SA, Hogg A, Babusis D, Clarke MO (2020) Comparative therapeutic efficacy of remdesivir and combination lopinavir, ritonavir, and interferon beta against MERS-CoV. Nature communications 11(1):1–14
Qu J-M, Cao B, Chen R-C (2020) Treatment of COVID-19. COVID-19 55
Gaurav A, Al-Nema M (2019) Polymerases of coronaviruses: structure, function, and inhibitors, viral polymerases. Elsevier, pp 271–300
Gao Y, Yan L, Huang Y, Liu F, Zhao Y, Cao L, Wang T, Sun Q, Ming Z, Zhang L (2020) Structure of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase from COVID-19 virus. Science 368(6492):779–782
Jiang Y, Yin W, Xu HE (2020) RNA-dependent RNA polymerase: Structure, mechanism, and drug discovery for COVID-19. Biochem Biophys Res Commun
Kirchdoerfer RN, Ward AB (2019) Structure of the SARS-CoV nsp12 polymerase bound to nsp7 and nsp8 co-factors. Nat Commun 10(1):1–9
Wang M, Cao R, Zhang L, Yang X, Liu J, Xu M, Shi Z, Hu Z, Zhong W, Xiao G (2020) Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro. Cell Res 30(3):269–271
Martinez MA (2020) Compounds with therapeutic potential against novel respiratory 2019 coronavirus. Antimicrob Agents Chemotherapy 64(5)
Tao YY, Tang LV, Hu Y (2020) Treatments in the COVID-19 pandemic: an update on clinical trials. Taylor & Francis
Dong L, Hu S, Gao J (2020) Discovering drugs to treat coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Drug Discov Therap 14(1):58–60
Ju J, Li X, Kumar S, Jockusch S, Chien M, Tao C, Morozova I, Kalachikov S, Kirchdoerfer R, Russo JJ (2020) Nucleotide analogues as inhibitors of SARS-CoV polymerase. BioRxiv
Ramezankhani R, Solhi R, Memarnejadian A, Nami F, Hashemian SM, Tricot T, Vosough M, Verfaillie C (2020) Therapeutic modalities and novel approaches in regenerative medicine for COVID-19. Int J Antimicrob Agents 106208
Mickolajczyk KJ, Shelton PM, Grasso M, Cao X, Warrington SR, Aher A, Liu S, Kapoor TM (2020) Force-dependent stimulation of RNA unwinding by SARS-CoV-2 nsp13 helicase. BioRxiv
Jia Z, Yan L, Ren Z, Wu L, Wang J, Guo J, Zheng L, Ming Z, Zhang L, Lou Z (2019) Delicate structural coordination of the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus Nsp13 upon ATP hydrolysis. Nucl Acids Res 47(12):6538–6550
Hao W, Wojdyla JA, Zhao R, Han R, Das R, Zlatev I, Manoharan M, Wang M, Cui S (2017) Crystal structure of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus helicase. PLoS Pathog 13(6):
Russo M, Moccia S, Spagnuolo C, Tedesco I, Russo GL (2020) Roles of flavonoids against coronavirus infection. Chem-Biol Interact 109211
Shu T, Huang M, Di Wu YR, Zhang X, Han Y, Mu J, Wang R, Qiu Y, Zhang D-Y, Zhou X (2020) SARS-coronavirus-2 Nsp13 possesses NTPase and RNA helicase activities that can be inhibited by bismuth salts. Virologica Sinica 1
Yu M-S, Lee J, Lee JM, Kim Y, Chin Y-W, Jee J-G, Keum Y-S, Jeong Y-J (2012) Identification of myricetin and scutellarein as novel chemical inhibitors of the SARS coronavirus helicase, nsP13. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 22(12):4049–4054
Keum Y-S, Jeong Y-J (2012) Development of chemical inhibitors of the SARS coronavirus: viral helicase as a potential target. Biochem Pharmacol 84(10):1351–1358
Nittari G, Pallotta G, Amenta F, Tayebati SK (2020) Current pharmacological treatments for SARS-COV-2: a narrative review. Eur J Pharmacol 173328
Warrington R, Watson W, Kim HL, Antonetti FR (2011) An introduction to immunology and immunopathology. Allergy Asthma Clin Immunol 7(S1):S1
Christiaansen A, Varga SM, Spencer JV (2015) Viral manipulation of the host immune response. Curr Opin Immunol 36:54–60
Magro G (2020) COVID-19: review on latest available drugs and therapies against SARS-CoV-2. Coagulation inflammation cross-talking. Virus Res 198070
Qin C, Zhou L, Hu Z, Zhang S, Yang S, Tao Y, Xie C, Ma K, Shang K, Wang W (2020) Dysregulation of immune response in patients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China. Clin Infect Dis
Shen C, Wang Z, Zhao F, Yang Y, Li J, Yuan J, Wang F, Li D, Yang M, Xing L (2020) Treatment of 5 critically ill patients with COVID-19 with convalescent plasma. JAMA 323(16):1582–1589
Khosravani H, Steinberg L, Incardona N, Quail P, Perri G-A (2020) Symptom management and end-of-life care of residents with COVID-19 in long-term care homes. Can Fam Physician 66(6):404–406
Lovell N, Maddocks M, Etkind SN, Taylor K, Carey I, Vora V, Marsh L, Higginson IJ, Prentice W, Edmonds P (2020) Characteristics, symptom management and outcomes of 101 patients with COVID-19 referred for hospital palliative care. J Pain Symptom Manage
Yang X, Liu Y, Liu Y, Yang Q, Wu X, Huang X, Liu H, Cai W, Ma G (2020) Medication therapy strategies for the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): recent progress and challenges. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol 13(9):957–975
Thickett DR, Armstrong L, Christie SJ, Millar AB (2001) Vascular endothelial growth factor may contribute to increased vascular permeability in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 164(9):1601–1605
Ekström MP, Bornefalk-Hermansson A, Abernethy AP, Currow DC (2014) Safety of benzodiazepines and opioids in very severe respiratory disease: national prospective study. BMJ 348
Speiser DE, Bachmann MF (2020) COVID-19: mechanisms of vaccination and immunity. Vaccines 8(3):404
Lurie N, Saville M, Hatchett R, Halton J (2020) Developing Covid-19 vaccines at pandemic speed. N Engl J Med 382(21):1969–1973
Haque A, Pant AB (2020) Efforts at COVID-19 vaccine development: challenges and successes. Vaccines 8(4):739
Dong Y, Dai T, Wei Y, Zhang L, Zheng M, Zhou F (2020) A systematic review of SARS-CoV-2 vaccine candidates. Sig Transduction Targeted Therapy 5(1):1–14
Liu C, Zhou Q, Li Y, Garner LV, Watkins SP, Carter LJ, Smoot J, Gregg AC, Daniels AD, Jervey S (2020) Research and development on therapeutic agents and vaccines for COVID-19 and related human coronavirus diseases. ACS Publications
WHO (2021) Draft landscape of COVID-19 candidate vaccines. https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/draft-landscape-of-covid-19-candidate-vaccines
Saade F, Petrovsky N (2012) Technologies for enhanced efficacy of DNA vaccines. Expert Rev Vaccines 11(2):189–209
Oroojalian F, Haghbin A, Baradaran B, Hemat N, Shahbazi M-A, Baghi HB, Mokhtarzadeh A, Hamblin MR (2020) Novel insights into the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection: an overview of current clinical trials. Int J Biol Macromol
Pardi N, Hogan MJ, Porter FW, Weissman D (2018) mRNA vaccines—a new era in vaccinology. Nat Rev Drug Discovery 17(4):261
NNanomedicine and the COVID-19 vaccines. Nat Nanotechnol 15(12):963–963
McKay PF, Hu K, Blakney AK, Samnuan K, Brown JC, Penn R, Zhou J, Bouton CR, Rogers P, Polra K (2020) Self-amplifying RNA SARS-CoV-2 lipid nanoparticle vaccine candidate induces high neutralizing antibody titers in mice. Nature Commun 11(1):1–7
Ghorbani A, Zare F, Sazegari S, Afsharifar A, Eskandari MH, Pormohammad A (2020) Development of a novel platform of virus-like particle (VLP)-based vaccine against COVID-19 by exposing epitopes: an immunoinformatics approach. New Microbes New Infect 38:
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2021 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Abolhassani, H., Bashiri, G., Montazeri, M., Kouchakzadeh, H., Shojaosadati, S.A., Siadat, S.E.R. (2021). Introduction to the Virus and Its Infection Stages. In: Rahmandoust, M., Ranaei-Siadat, SO. (eds) COVID-19. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3108-5_1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3108-5_1
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-16-3107-8
Online ISBN: 978-981-16-3108-5
eBook Packages: Physics and AstronomyPhysics and Astronomy (R0)