Abstract
The language of trauma has been used by many to explain what happens to individuals and to the collectivities to which they belong. Some of these traumatic experiences stem from interpersonal violence, such as sexual and physical abuse or domestic violence. Others may stem from witnessing interpersonal violence and victimisation, such as witnessing or being a victim of a serious accident, war, a terror attack, or experiencing the loss of a loved one. Regardless of its cause, trauma, whether individualistic or collective, arises from the experience of pain and suffering post ‘an extraordinary event’ so disruptive that it triggers an emotional response and public attention. This chapter will situate the experiences of trauma felt by the surviving Muslim women victims of the Christchurch terror attack that occurred on March 15, 2019, within the scope of collective trauma theory. We do this by examining two types of collective trauma unique to the Christchurch experience: collective trauma through personal experience and collective trauma through empathy. Although our focus is on the Muslim women victims and survivors of the attack, we also show how ‘meaning-making’ processes such as the media and the New Zealand government helped define the type of pain and suffering felt by the victims. We discuss how this was translated into a broader form of collective suffering whereby the Muslim community, the community of New Zealand, and those abroad felt victimised by the event on a traumatic level.
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Notes
- 1.
See, for example, Beatriz Manz, “Terror, Grief, and Recovery: Genocidal Trauma in a Mayan Village in Guatemala,” in Annihilating Difference: The Anthropology of Genocide, ed. Alexander Laban Hinton, 292–309 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002); Paul Watson, “War’s Over in Yugoslavia, but Box-Office Battles Have Begun,” Los Angeles Times, January 3, 2001, A1, 6; Jennifer Griffiths, “Between Women: Trauma, Witnessing, and the Legacy of Interracial Rape in Robbie McCauley’s Sally’s Rape,” A Journal of Women Studies 26, no. 3 (2005): 1–23; Ridwan Nytagodien and Arthur Neal, “Collective Trauma, Apologies, and the Politics of Memory,” Journal of Human Rights 3, no. 4 (2004): 465–475.
- 2.
Arthur G. Neal, National Trauma and Collective Memory: Major Events in the American Century (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1998), 3, 9–10.
- 3.
Cathy Caruth, Unclaimed Experience: Trauma, Narrative, and History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); Kai T. Erikson, Everything in its Path: Destruction of Community in the Buffalo Creek Flood (New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 1976); David Janzen, Trauma and the Failure of History: Kings, Lamentations, and the Destruction of Jerusalem (Atlanta: SBL Press, 2019).
- 4.
See, for example, Lucía M. Suárez, “Breath, Eyes, Memory: Rape, Memory, and Denunciation,” Journal of Haitian Studies 9, no. 2 (2003): 111–125; Birgit Schippers, “Violence, Affect and Ethics,” in Butler and Ethics, ed. Moya Lloyd, 91–117 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2015); Emma Tseris, Trauma, Women’s Mental Health, and Social Justice: Pitfalls and Possibilities (London: Routledge, 2019); Hilary Abrahams, Supporting Women after Domestic Violence: Loss, Trauma and Recovery (London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 2007).
- 5.
Ron Eyerman, “Social Theory and Trauma,” Acta Sociologica 56, no. 1 (2013): 43; Jeffrey C. Alexander and Elizabeth Butler Breese, “Introduction: On Social Suffering and its Cultural Construction,” in Narrating Trauma: On the Impact of Collective Suffering, eds. Ron Eyerman, Jeffrey C. Alexander, and Elizabeth Butler Breese (New York: Routledge, 2011), xii.
- 6.
Ibid.
- 7.
Ron Eyerman, “Social Theory and Trauma,” Acta Sociologica 56, no. 1 (2013): 43; Jeffrey C. Alexander and Elizabeth Butler Breese, “Introduction: On Social Suffering and its Cultural Construction,” in Narrating Trauma: On the Impact of Collective Suffering, eds. Ron Eyerman, Jeffrey C. Alexander, and Elizabeth Butler Breese (New York: Routledge, 2011), xii.
- 8.
Eyerman, “Social Theory and Trauma,” 43.
- 9.
Jeffrey C. Alexander, Trauma: A Social Theory (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2012), 9.
- 10.
Ibid, 10.
- 11.
Ibid.
- 12.
Charles R. Figley, Burnout in Families: The Systemic Costs of Caring (New York: CRC Press, 1998), 7.
- 13.
Pseudonyms have been used in this section instead of the actual names of the victims and survivors, unless they were already published, or prior consent was given. All the direct quotes and references to and narratives mentioned in the chapter are from our conversations with Muslim women survivors in Christchurch that took place between 17th, 18th and 19th of March, 2019, unless otherwise mentioned explicitly.
- 14.
There were many other women who were affected. Majda Al Hajji, Hawo Samatar, Faduma Yusuf, Dahabo Abdi and Jumaya Jones were all present during the attack et al. Noor Mosque.
- 15.
See also Jacinda Ardern, “New Zealand PM Jacinda Ardern Says She Will Never Say Christchurch Shooter’s Name,” ABC News, March 19, 2019, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-03-19/christchurch-shootings-jacinda-ardern-house-speech-shooter-name/10917030.
- 16.
There were 1737 phone and text services provided and more than 6000 counselling sessions since the attack. See Oliver Lewis, “Mental Health Need Expected to Last Years Following Christchurch Terror Attack – GP,” Stuff, March, 27, 2019, https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/christchurch-shooting/111560145/mental-health-need-expected-to-last-years-following-christchurch-terror-attack--gp.
- 17.
Alexander, Trauma, 19.
- 18.
Of the many injured with bullet and shrapnel wounds in Christchurch hospital. The last remaining patient was a twenty-five-year-old woman shot numerous times, which has left her disabled.
- 19.
Husna had left the ladies section despite pleas from other ladies not to leave to check up on her husband who was disabled. She was concerned for his safety. Sadly, she was brutally killed, and her husband actually survived. See Florence Kerr, “Women of the Mosque,” Stuff, https://interactives.stuff.co.nz/2019/05/women-of-the-mosque/.
- 20.
Ansi Alibava was only twenty-five-years-old when she found an opportunity to run along with Majda Al Hajji through the side door to escape the shooter. Alibava was found by the terrorist and killed immediately. Kerr, “Women of the Mosque.”.
- 21.
Ibid.
- 22.
Ibid.
- 23.
Linda was an Auckland born sixty-five-year-old convert to Islam who was loved by the community in Christchurch, whom she cared for and supported. Karim Bibi was a sixty-three-year-old Pakistani national who had just come to visit her son. She was survived only by her daughter, Maryum Gul. See BBC News, “Christchurch Shootings: The People Killed as They Prayed,” BBC News, March, 21, 2019, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-47593693.
- 24.
Alexander, Trauma, 19.
- 25.
“Christchurch Mosque Attack: ‘I’m Glad That’s Where He Died—Surrounded by Friends and God’,” New Zealand Herald, March 21, 2019, https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=12214826.
- 26.
Ibid.
- 27.
Sunnya Khawaja and Nigar G. Khawaja, “Coping with Loss and Bereavement: An Islamic Perspective,” New Zealand Journal of Psychology 48, no. 1 (2019): 9.
- 28.
Kerr, “Women of the Mosque.”.
- 29.
Ibid. Emphasis added.
- 30.
Ibid. Emphasis added.
- 31.
Eyerman, “Social Theory and Trauma,” 43.
- 32.
Lewis, “Mental Health Need Expected to Last Years.”.
- 33.
Ibid.
- 34.
Ibid.
- 35.
Alexander, Trauma, 10.
- 36.
Ibid.
- 37.
Mark Klempner, “Navigating Life Review Interviews with Survivors of Trauma,” Oral History Review 27, no. 2 (2000): 67. It should be noted that we were having conversations and dialogues with the Muslim women in Christchurch and not conducting interviews per se.
- 38.
BBC News, “Christchurch shootings.”.
- 39.
Ibid.
- 40.
Klempner, “Navigating Life Review Interviews,” 68.
- 41.
Alexander, Trauma, 10.
- 42.
Alexander, Trauma, 10.
- 43.
Alexander and Breese, “Introduction,” xii.
- 44.
Alexander, Trauma, 13.
- 45.
Eyerman, “Social Theory and Trauma,” 93.
- 46.
Neal, National Trauma, 18.
- 47.
Jorge Silva, “New Zealand Women Wear Headscarves in Solidarity with Muslims after Christchurch Shootings,” Reuters/ABC News, March 22, 2019, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-03-22/headscarves-in-solidarity-with-muslim-women-after-mosque-attack/10929734.
- 48.
Ibid.
- 49.
Ibid.
- 50.
Mariam Khan, “Jacinda Ardern’s Grief Should Not Eclipse that of Muslims,” The Guardian, April 2, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/apr/02/jacinda-ardern-christchurch-grief-muslims-new-zealand.
- 51.
Silva, “New Zealand Women Wear Headscarves.”.
- 52.
Ibid.
- 53.
Nesrine Malik, “With Respect: How Jacinda Ardern Showed the World What a Leader Should Be,” The Guardian, March 28, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/mar/28/with-respect-how-jacinda-ardern-showed-the-world-what-a-leader-should-be.
- 54.
Irene Zempi and Imran Awan, Islamophobia: Lived Experiences of Online and Offline Victimisation (Bristol: Bristol University Press, 2016), 36–8.
- 55.
Mohamad Abdalla, “Finding Dignity and Grace in the Aftermath of the Christchurch Attack,” The Conversation, March 22, 2019, https://theconversation.com/finding-dignity-and-grace-in-the-aftermath-of-the-christchurch-attack-114072.
- 56.
Ibid.
- 57.
Ibid.
- 58.
Ibid.
- 59.
Ibid.
- 60.
Eyerman, “Social Theory and Trauma,” 93.
- 61.
Abdalla, “Finding Dignity and Grace.”.
- 62.
Paul Toohey, “New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern Reveals New Gun Laws,” Daily Telegraph, March 21, 2019, https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/truecrimeaustralia/crimeinfocus/christchurch-mosque-to-hold-friday-prayer-a-week-after-terrorist-attacks-left-50-people-dead/news-story/80a2a852bcaa92d5ad3e43ee6982a413.
- 63.
News Agencies, “New Zealand Mosque Attacks Prompt Flood of Support for Muslims,” Al Jazeera, March 16, 2019, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/03/zealand-mosque-attacks-prompt-flood-support-muslims-190316091744196.html; “New Zealand Raises $10 m for Victims of Christchurch Mosque Shootings,” Stuff, March 17, 2019, https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/christchurch-shooting/111328476/new-zealand-givealittle-page-raises-more-than-200k-for-victims-of-christchurch-terror-attack.
- 64.
Stuff Reporters, “Vigils for Christchurch Mosque Shooting Victims Held Across the Country,” Stuff, March 17, 2019, https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/crime/111331361/vigils-for-christchurch-mosque-shooting-victims-held-across-the-country; “Christchurch Massacres: Vigils Being Held Around NZ,” NZ Herald, March 17, 2019, https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=12213498; Kim Choe, “Christchurch Terror Attack: Vigils Happening Around New Zealand,” News Hub, March 22, 2019, https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/new-zealand/2019/03/christchurch-terror-attack-vigils-happening-around-new-zealand.html.
- 65.
Jenna Amatulli, “New Zealanders Create Human Chain Around Mosque to Shield Muslims in Prayer,” Huffington Post, March 23, 2019, https://www.huffingtonpost.com.au/entry/new-zealand-mosque-prayer-human-chain_n_5c94e9d3e4b01ebeef0e4e5f; Alice Webb-Liddall and Albert Redmore, “‘Human Chain of Love’ Planned in Support of Muslim Population,” News Hub, March 19, 2019, https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/new-zealand/2019/03/human-chain-of-love-planned-in-support-of-muslim-population.html.
- 66.
“In Pictures: Christchurch Residents Pay Tribute to Victims,” Al Jazeera, March 17, 2019, https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/inpictures/pictures-christchurch-residents-pay-tribute-victims-190317060134893.html.
- 67.
Let’s Collaborate, “Collaborate for Christchurch,” Let’s Collaborate, https://www.letscollaborate.co.nz/collaborate-for-christchurch.
- 68.
Alexander, Trauma, 15.
- 69.
Calla Wahlquist, “‘The Nation is Behind Us’: New Zealand Shares Pain of Christchurch Muslims,” The Guardian, March 24, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/mar/24/the-nation-is-behind-us-new-zealand-shares-pain-of-christchurch-muslims.
- 70.
“‘We love you’: Mosques Around World Showered With Flowers After Christchurch Massacre,” The Guardian, March 16, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/mar/16/we-love-you-mosques-around-world-showered-with-flowers-after-christchurch-massacre. For articles on the Sydney Siege, see Miles Godfrey and Andrew Carswell, “Sydney Siege: Amazing Scenes as Sydneysiders Empty Florists to Fill Martin Place with Flowers,” The Daily Telegraph, December 16, 2014, https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/sydney-siege-amazing-scenes-as-sydneysiders-empty-florists-to-fill-martin-place-with-flowers/news-story/d08149b148350e9bd82405ef92adf66d; “Sydney Siege: Thousands Pay Tribute to Victims Killed in Martin Place Lindt Cafe Shootout,” ABC News, December 17, 2014, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-12-17/sydney-siege-tributes-flow-for-victims-killed-in-lindt-cafe/5971804.
Ibid.
- 71.
Ibid.
- 72.
Ibid.
- 73.
Ibid.
- 74.
Ibid.
- 75.
Alexander, Trauma, 28.
- 76.
“New Zealand Begins First Round of Gun Buybacks After Christchurch Attack,” The Guardian, July 13, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jul/13/new-zealand-begins-first-round-of-gun-buybacks-after-christchurch-attack; Eleanor Ainge Roy, “New Zealand Gun Buyback: 10,000 Firearms Returned After Christchurch Attack,” The Guardian, August 12, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/12/new-zealand-gun-buyback-10000-firearms-returned-after-christchurch-attack.
- 77.
Alexander, Trauma, 11.
- 78.
Alexander and Breese, “Introduction,” xii.
- 79.
Reuters, “New Zealand Gun Laws Pass 119–1 After Christchurch Mosque Shootings,” ABC News, April 10, 2019, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-04-10/new-zealand-gun-laws-pass-119-1-after-christchurch-mass-shooting/10990632.
- 80.
Ibid.
- 81.
Toohey, “New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern Reveals New Gun Laws.”.
- 82.
Alexander, Trauma, 21.
- 83.
Abdalla, “Finding Dignity and Grace.”.
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Ansari, M., Cufurovic, M. (2021). Collective Trauma and the Muslim Women of the Christchurch Attack: An Observational and Media Study. In: Karim, A.A., Khalil, R., Moustafa, A. (eds) Female Pioneers from Ancient Egypt and the Middle East. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1413-2_10
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