Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Botany of Sandalwood (Santalum album L.)

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Sandalwood: Silviculture, Conservation and Applications

  • 342 Accesses

Abstract

The genus Santalum has been included in Santalaceae family, and is categorized as a hemiparasitic plant. This genus is represented by about 19 accepted tree species that are distributed in India, Indonesia, Philippines, Pacific Islands, and Australia. S. album is the most famous and treasured species, and is also known as Sandalwood, Indian Sandalwood, or White Sandalwood. The tree is well known for its uses worldwide, since the ancient times. Presently, this species is categorized as a “vulnerable species”, because of over-exploitation of trees from their natural habitats. Consequently, Sandalwood products have become costly and rare, and various efforts have been taken by the Indian government to protect this appreciated resource. This chapter provides the botany, identification characters, distribution, phenology, anatomical features, reproductive biology, breeding system and variations of Sandalwood in their environmental gradients with photographs.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 189.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Arunkumar AN, Dhyani A, Joshi G (2019) Santalum album. IUCN Red List Threaten Species 2019:e.T31852A2807668. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T31852A28076

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bagchi SK, Veerendra HCS (1987) Open pollination in Santalum album L. Bano Bigyan Patrica 16:87–90

    Google Scholar 

  • Bapat VA, Dixit GB, Yadav SR (2012) Plant biodiversity conservation and role of botanists. Curr Sci 102(10):1366–1369

    Google Scholar 

  • Barrett SC (2010) Understanding plant reproductive diversity. Philos Trans Royal Soc: Biol Sci 365(1537):99–109

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baskorowati L (2011) Flowering intensity and flower visitors of Santalum album L. at ex situ conservation plot, Watusipat, Gunung Kidul, Yogyakarta. Indonesian J Forestry Res 8(2):130–143

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Batabyal S (2015) Growth variability of Santalum album L. in different edaphic conditions and formulation of protocols for its propagation. Ph.D. thesis, University of Burdwan, Bardhaman

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhaskar V (1992) Pollination biology and fertilization in Santalum album L. (Santalaceae). Flora 187:73–78

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonnet OT (1938) Seed setting and average seed weight as affected by two method of opening barley flowers for emasculation. Agron J 30(6):501–506

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brandis D (1906) Indian trees. Archibald Constable and Co. Ltd., London

    Google Scholar 

  • Bulai P, Nataniela V (2005) Research, development, and extension of sandalwood in Fiji—a new beginning. In: Thomson L, Bulai S, Sovea L (eds). Regional workshop on sandalwood research, development and extension in the Pacific Islands and Asia. Noumea, New Caledonia, 7–11 October 2002. pp. 83–91, Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Suva

    Google Scholar 

  • Butaud J-F (2015) Reinstatement of the Loyalty Islands sandalwood, Santalum austrocaledonicum var. glabrum (Santalaceae), in New Caledonia. PhytoKeys 56:111–126. https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.56.5924

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Byrne M, MacDonald B, Broadhurst L, Brand J (2003) Regional genetic differentiation in Western Australian sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) as revealed by nuclear RFLP analysis. Theor Appl Genet 107:1208–1214

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dani KGS, Ravikumar P, Kumar RP, Kush A (2011) Genetic variation within and among small isolated populations of Santalum album. Biol Plant 55(2):323–326

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Doran JC, Thomson L, Brophy JJ, Goldsack B, Bulai P, Faka'osi T, Mokoia T (2005) Variation in heartwood oil composition of young sandalwood trees in the South Pacific (Santalum yasi, S. album and F1 hybrids in Fiji, and S. yasi in Tonga and Niue). Sandalwood Res Newslett 20:3–7

    Google Scholar 

  • Fathin AN, Ratnaningrum YWN (2018) The differences in floral structures of three sandalwood variants in one of Gunung Sewu (Indonesia) population, and their consequences on visitor diversity and visitation rate. Biodiversitas 19(3):1097–1101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fox JE (2000) Sandalwood: the royal tree. Biologist (London) 47:31–34

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goldblatt P, Johnson DE (2000) Index to plant chromosome numbers 1996–1997. Monogr Syst Bot Missouri Bot Gard 81:1–188

    Google Scholar 

  • Harbaugh DT (2007) A taxonomic revision of Australian northern sandalwood (Santalum lanceolatum, Santalaceae). Austral Syst Bot 20:409–416

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harbaugh DT (2008) Polyploid and hybrid origins of Pacific island sandalwoods (Santalum, Santalaceae) inferred from low-copy nuclear and flow cytometry data. Int J Plant Sci 169:677–685. https://doi.org/10.1086/533610

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harbaugh DT, Baldwin BG (2007) Phylogeny and biogeography of the sandalwoods (Santalum, Santalaceae): repeated dispersals throughout the Pacific. Am J Bot 94:1028–1040. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.94.6.1028

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harbaugh DT, Oppenheimer HL, Wood KR, Wagner WL (2010) Taxonomic revision of the endangered Hawaiian red-flowered sandalwoods (Santalum) and discovery of an ancient hybrid species. Syst Bot 35:827–838. https://doi.org/10.1600/036364410X539899

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haryanto Y, Na'iem M, Ratnaningrum YWN, Prehaten D (2005) Enhancing pollination effectiveness and crossing rate on the low seed set and mixed mating systems endangered species (Santalum album Linn., Santalaceae): effect of pollen quantity and pollen sources on seed production. In: Mason E, Rimbawanto A, Ginoga KL, Hendromono KTE (eds) Proceeding of the international seminar on plantation forest research and development. Center of Forest Biotechnology and Tree Improvement, Yogyakarta, pp 141–149

    Google Scholar 

  • Huish RD, Faka’osi T, Likiafu H, Mateboto J, Huish KH (2015) Distribution, population structure, and management of a rare sandalwood (Santalum yasi, Santalaceae) in Fiji and Tonga. Pac Conserv Biol 21:27–37

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Indrioko S, Ratnaningrum YWN (2015) Habitat loss caused clonality, genetic diversity reduction and reproductive failure in Santalum album, an endangered endemic species of Indonesia. Procedia Environ Sci 5:613–620

    Google Scholar 

  • IUCN (2009) IUCN red list categories and criteria: version 3.1. IUCN Species Survival Commission. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Glad and Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Jyothi PV, Atluri JB, Subba Reddi C (1991) Pollination ecology of Santalum album (Santalaceae). Trop Ecol 32:98–104

    Google Scholar 

  • Krishnakumar N, Parthiban KT (2017) Flowering phenology and seed production of Santalum album L. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci 6(5):963–974

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krishnakumar N, Parthiban KT, Umesh Kanna S (2018) Identification of pollinators for good quality seed productions in sandal wood (Santalum album L.). J Entomol Zool Stud 6(3):1467–1470

    Google Scholar 

  • Kumar V, Subramanyam B (1986) Chromosome atlas of flowering plants of the Indian subcontinent 1. Dicotyledons. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta

    Google Scholar 

  • Kumar R, Anjum N, Tripathi Y (2015) Phytochemistry and pharmacology of Santalum album L.: a review. World J Pharmaceut Res 4(10):1842–1876

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li YL (2003) Introduction of Santalum album. Science Press, Beijing

    Google Scholar 

  • Ma GH, Bunn E, Zhang JF, Wu GJ (2006) Evidence of dichogamy in Santalum album L. J Integr Plant Biol 48:300–306

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muir K, Byrne M, Barbour E, Cox MC, Fox JED (2007) High levels of outcrossing in a family trial of Western Australian sandalwood (Santalum spicatum). Silvae Genet 56:222–230

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Padmanabha HSA, Nagaveni HC, Rai SN (1991) Endogenous gibberellin in relation to flower induction in sandal. Myforest 24:32–24

    Google Scholar 

  • POWO (2020) Plants of the world online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/. Accessed 22 July 2020

  • Prasetyaningtyas M (2005) Studi fenologi pembungaan dan penyerbukan Santalum album Linn. Master thesis, Pasca Sarjana Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta

    Google Scholar 

  • Prehatan D, Ratnaningrun YWN (2005) Pollination mechanisms and breeding systems of Santalum album (Santalaceae), the new landrace of Gunungkidul, Central Java. In: Proceeding on the international forestry seminar, Faculty of Food and Agriculture. Universiti Putra Malaysia

    Google Scholar 

  • Prehaten D, Ratnaningrum YWN (2014) Pollination mechanisms and breeding systems of Santalum album (Santalaceae), the new landrace of Gunungkidul. Central Java. In AGRIS Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, pp 223–234

    Google Scholar 

  • Rao LN (1942) Studies in the Santalaceae. Ann Bot 6:151–175

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rao MN, Ganeshaiah KN, Shaanker RU (2007) Assessing threats and mapping sandal resources to identify genetic ‘hot-spot’ for in-situ conservation in peninsular India. Conserv Genet 8:925–935

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rao MN, Soneji JR, Sudarshana P (2011) Santalum. In: Kole C (ed) Wild crop relatives: genomic and breeding resources. Springer, Berlin, pp 131–144. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-21250-5

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Rathcke B, Lacey EP (1985) Phenological pattern of terrestrial plants. Ann Rev Ecol System 16:179–214

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ratnaningrum YWN, Indrioko S (2014) Variation on genotypes and flowering characters affecting pollination mechanisms of sandalwood (Santalum album Linn., Santalaceae) planted on ex-situ gene conservation in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Eurasean J For Res 6:167–179

    Google Scholar 

  • Ratnaningrum YWW, Indrioko S (2015) Response of flowering and seed production of sandalwood (Santalum album Linn., Santalaceae) to climate changes. Procedia Env Sci 28:665–675

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ratnaningrum YWN, Kurniawan A (2019) Floral structure and genetical differences of sandalwood variants in Gunung Sewu (Java, Indonesia), and its effects on breeding systems and reproductive ability. Biodivesitas 20(2):393–404

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ratnaningrum YWN, Indrioko S, Faridah E, Syahbudin A (2015) The effects of population size on genetic parameters and mating system of sandalwood in Gunung Sewu, Indonesia. Indonesian J Biotech 20(2):182–201

    Google Scholar 

  • Ratnaningrum YWN, Indrioko S, Faridah E, Syahbudin A (2018) Population structures and seasons affected flowering, pollination and reproductive outputs of sandalwood in Gunung Sewu, Java, Indonesia. Nusantara Biosci 10(1):12–16

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rughkla A, McComb JA, Jones MGK (2006) Intra-and inter specific pollination of Santalum spicatum and S album. Aust J Bot 45(6):1083–1095

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Septiani Y, Setyawati T (2012) Sandal wood resources and management in East Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia. In: Report of international sandalwood symposium 2012 in Hawaii, USA, ITTO PD 459/07 Rev.1

    Google Scholar 

  • Seran NY, Sudarto, Hakim L, Arisoesilaningsih E (2018) Sandalwood (Santalum album) growth and farming success strengthen its natural conservation in the Timor Island, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 19(4):1586–1592

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Srimathi RA (1983) Breeding of sandal, a tropical hardwood tree. Current status and future prospects. In: ISTS symposium on advance in tree species. Forest Research Institute, Dehradun

    Google Scholar 

  • Srinivasan VV, Sivaramakrishnan VR, Rangaswamy CR, Padmanabha HSA, Shanakaranarayana KH (1992) Sandal. ICFRE, Dehra Dun

    Google Scholar 

  • Subasinghe SMCUP (2014) Restoration of Santalum album L. resource in Sri Lanka: distribution, seed storage, germination and establishment. J Depart Wildlife Conserv 2:155–164

    Google Scholar 

  • Suma TB, Balasundaran M (2003) Isozyme variation in five provenances of Santalum album in India. Austral J Bot 51(3):243–249

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sundharamoorthy S, Govindarajan N, Chinnapalli A, Raju I (2018) Macro-microscopic atlas on heartwood of Santalum album L. (sandalwood). Pharm J 10(4):730–733

    Google Scholar 

  • Susila IWM, Effendi d MS (1995) Studi fenologi dan kualitas benih cendana (Santalum album) di Nusa Tenggara Timur. Santalum 19:1–8

    Google Scholar 

  • Syahbudin A (2016) Flowering and seed production of sandalwood (Santalum album; santalaceae) along environmental gradients in Gunung Sewu Geopark, Indonesia. Nusentara Biosci 8(2):180–191

    Google Scholar 

  • Tamla HT, Cornelius J, Page T (2011) Reproductive biology of three commercially valuable Santalum species: development of flowers and inflorescences, breeding systems, and interspecific crossability. Euphytica 184(3):323–333

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Teixeira da Silva JA, Mafatlal KM, Deepak S, Tony P, Xinhua Z, Nataraj M, Guohua M (2016) Sandalwood: basic biology, tissue culture, and genetic transformation. Planta 243(4):847–887

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • The Plant List (2020) Santalaceae. http://www.theplantlist.org/1.1/browse/A/Santalaceae/Santalum/. Accessed 11 Feb 2020

  • Thomson L, Doran J, Clarke B (eds) (2018) Trees for life in Oceania: conservation and utilisation of genetic diversity. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra

    Google Scholar 

  • Veerendra HCS, Padmanabha HSA (1996) The breeding system in sandal (Santalum album L.). Silvae Genet 45(4):188–190

    Google Scholar 

  • Veerendra HCS, Sujatha M (1989) Pollination studies in Santalum album L. Curr Sci 58(11):629–630

    Google Scholar 

  • Warburton CL, James EA, Fripp YJ, Trueman SJ, Wallace HM (2000) Clonality and sexual reproductive failure in remnant populations of Santalum lanceolatum (Santalaceae). Biol Conserv 96(1):45–54

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang XH, Teixeira da Silva JA, Ma GH (2010) Karyotype analysis of Santalum album L. Caryologia 63:142–148

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh, India

    Thammineni Pullaiah

  2. Department of Botany, The Madura College, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India

    Subbiah Karuppusamy

Authors
  1. Thammineni Pullaiah
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Subbiah Karuppusamy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh, India

    Thammineni Pullaiah

  2. Forest Department, Govt. of West Bengal, Indian Forest Service, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

    Sudhir Chandra Das

  3. Department of Biotechnology, Shivaji University, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, India

    Vishwas A. Bapat

  4. Department of Biotechnology, East West First Grade College, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

    Mallappa Kumara Swamy

  5. Department of Biochemistry, REVA University, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

    Vaddi Damodar Reddy

  6. Research & Development, Shivashakti Biotechnologies Ltd, Hyderabad, Telangana, India

    Kongdragunta Sri Rama Murthy

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Pullaiah, T., Karuppusamy, S. (2021). Botany of Sandalwood (Santalum album L.). In: Pullaiah, T., Das, S.C., Bapat, V.A., Swamy, M.K., Reddy, V.D., Murthy, K.S.R. (eds) Sandalwood: Silviculture, Conservation and Applications. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-0780-6_3

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation