Skip to main content

A Liminal and Transitional Awkward Power: Brazil Betwixt the Great and Middle Powers

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Awkward Powers: Escaping Traditional Great and Middle Power Theory

Part of the book series: Global Political Transitions ((GLPOTR))

Abstract

This chapter argues that the nature of Brazilian “power” in the global system is either neglected or misunderstood, even as its presence as a rising power increasingly attracts greater attention from scholars and analysts. To better capture how Brazil sits in the international power hierarchy, we subject it to a threefold theoretical analysis derived from the main IR research traditions—Realism (awkward capabilities), Liberalism (awkward behaviour), and Constructivism (awkward identity). We conclude that Brazil may be categorized as a type of “awkward great power”—one that occupies a liminal and transitional status in the international hierarchy of states due to its impressive but uneven capabilities and its ultimate political determination to acquire a seat at the top tables of international politics.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 119.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    An earlier version of this research was presented at the 2019 Australian Political Science Association conference, for the panel titled “Escaping IR Theory? The Case for Awkward Powers”.

  2. 2.

    Eric Herschberg, “Foreword,” in Brazil on the Global Stage Power, Ideas, and the Liberal International Order, eds. Oliver Stuenkel and Matthew M. Taylor (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), vi.

  3. 3.

    Andrew Carr, “Is Australia a Middle Power? A Systemic Impact Approach,” Australian Journal of International Affairs 68, no. 1 (2013): 70–84.

  4. 4.

    Oliver Stuenkel and Matthew M. Taylor, “Brazil on the Global Stage: Origins and Consequences of Brazil’s Challenge to the Global Liberal Order,” in Brazil on the Global Stage Power, Ideas, and the Liberal International Order, eds. Oliver Stuenkel and Matthew M. Taylor (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 16.

  5. 5.

    Sean Burges, “Mistaking Brazil for a Middle Power,” Journal of Iberian and Latin American Research 19, no. 2 (2013): 286.

  6. 6.

    Guilherme Casarões, “Making Sense of Bolsonaro’s Foreign Policy at Year One,” Americas Quarterly, January 7, 2020.

  7. 7.

    Gabriele Abbondanza and Thomas Wilkins, “The Case for Awkward Powers,” in Awkward Powers: Escaping Traditional Great and Middle Power Theory, eds. Gabriele Abbondanza and Thomas Wilkins (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021), 3–39.

  8. 8.

    Robert D. Bond, “Brazil’s Relations with the Northern Tier Countries of South America”, in Brazil in the International System, ed. Wayne A. Selcher (New York: Routledge, 2018), 134.

  9. 9.

    Sean Burges, Brazil in the World: The International Relations of a South American Giant (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2017), 241.

  10. 10.

    Stuenkel and Taylor, “Brazil on the Global Stage,” 8.

  11. 11.

    Gian Luca Gardini, “Brazil: What Rise of What Power?” Bulletin of Latin American Research 35, no. 1 (2016): 16.

  12. 12.

    Michael Reid, Brazil: The Troubled Rise of a Global Power (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2014).

  13. 13.

    Larry Rohter, Brazil on the Rise: The Story of a Country Transformed (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 280.

  14. 14.

    Reid, Brazil, 1.

  15. 15.

    Maria Regina Soares de Lima and Monica Hirst, “Brazil as an Intermediate State and Regional Power: Action, Choice and Responsibilities,” International Affairs 82, no. 1 (January, 2006): 27.

  16. 16.

    Detlef Nolte, “How to Compare Regional Powers: Analytical Concepts and Research Topics,” Review of International Studies 36 (2010): 883.

  17. 17.

    Parag Khanna, The Second World: Empires and Influence in the New Global Order (London: Penguin UK, 2009), xxv.

  18. 18.

    Andrew Hurrell, “Brazil: What Kind of Rising State in What Kind of International Order,” in Rising States, Rising Institutions: Challenges for Global Governance, eds. Alan S. Alexandroff and Andrew F. Cooper (Baltimore: Brookings Institution Press, 2010), 149.

  19. 19.

    Wayne A. Selcher, “Brazil in the World: A Ranking Analysis of Capability and Status Measures,” in Brazil in the International System, ed. Wayne A. Selcher (1981). (Reprint, New York: Routledge, 2018).

  20. 20.

    Wolf Grabendorff, “Brazil and West Germany: A Model for First World-Third World Relations?,” in Brazil in the International System, ed. Wayne A. Selcher, 181 (1981). (Reprint, New York: Routledge, 2018).

  21. 21.

    Grabendorff, “Brazil and West Germany,” 181.

  22. 22.

    Bond, “Brazil’s Relations,” 133.

  23. 23.

    Bond, “Brazil’s Relations,” 134.

  24. 24.

    Anthony Peter Spanakos and Joseph Marques, “Brazil’s Rise as a Middle Power,” in Middle Powers and the Rise of China, eds. Bruce Gilley and Andrew O’Neil (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2014), 217.

  25. 25.

    Joshua S. Goldstein, International Relations, 2nd edition (New York: HarperCollins, 1996), 78.

  26. 26.

    Andrés Malamud, “A Leader without Followers? The Growing Divergence between the Regional and Global Performance of Brazilian Foreign Policy,” Latin American Politics and Society 53, no. 3 (2011): 20.

  27. 27.

    Eduard Jordaan, “The Concept of a Middle Power in International Relations: Distinguishing between Emerging and Traditional Middle Powers,” Politikon: South African Journal of Political Studies 30, no. 1 (2003).

  28. 28.

    Burges, “Mistaking Brazil,” 287.

  29. 29.

    Burges, “Mistaking Brazil,” 291.

  30. 30.

    Reid, “Brazil,” 241.

  31. 31.

    Eugênio V. Garcia, “Sobre como o Brasil quase se tornou um membro permanente do Conselho de Segurança das Nações Unidas em 1945,Rev. Bras. Pol. Int. 54, no. 1 (2011): 164; João A. C. Vargas, Campanha Permanente: o Brasil e a Reforma do Conselho de Segurança da ONU (Rio de Janeiro: Editora FGV, 2011), 113.

  32. 32.

    Herschberg, “Foreword,” vi.

  33. 33.

    Goldstein, “International Relations,” 78.

  34. 34.

    Norman Bailey and Ronald Schneider, “Brazil’s Foreign Policy: A Case Study in Upward Mobility,” Inter-American Economic Affairs XXVII (1974); David M. Landry “Brazil’s New Regional and Global Roles,” World Affairs 137 (Summer 1974); Riordan Roett “Brazil Ascendant: International Relations and Geopolitics in the Late 20th Century,” Journal of International Affairs 29, no. 2 (Fall 1975); William Perry, “Contemporary Brazilian Foreign Policy: The International Strategy of an Emerging Power,” Foreign Policy Papers 2, no. 6 (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1977); Ronald M. Schneider, Brazil: Foreign Policy of a Future World Power (Boulder: Westview Press, 1976); Lucas P. Rezende, Sobe e Desce: Explicando a Cooperação em Defesa na América do Sul (Brasília: Editora Universidade de Brasília, 2015); Luis L. Schenoni, “Divide et Impera. La lógica realista de la unipolaridade Sudamericana,Desarrollo Económico 57, no. 222 (2017): 253–276; Octavio Amorim Neto, De Dutra a Lula: a condução e os determinantes da política externa brasileira (Rio de Janeiro: Elsevier, 2011).

  35. 35.

    Ronald M. Schneider, “Foreword,” in Brazil in the International System, ed. Wayne A. Selcher, xiii (1981). (Reprint, New York: Routledge, 2018).

  36. 36.

    Gardini, Gian Luca. “Brazil: What Rise of What Power?” Bulletin of Latin American Research 35, no. 1 (2016): 5–19.

  37. 37.

    Eve Z. Bratman, “Brazil’s Ambivalent Challenge to Global Environmental Norms,” in Brazil on the Global Stage Power, Ideas, and the Liberal International Order, eds. Oliver Stuenkel and Matthew M. Taylor (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 102.

  38. 38.

    Gardini, “Brazil,” 6.

  39. 39.

    Burges, Brazil in the World, 13.

  40. 40.

    “Composite Indicator of National Capability (CINC), National Material Capabilities (NMC_v5.0),” The Correlates of War Project, accessed December 19, 2019. https://correlatesofwar.org/data-sets/national-material-capabilities/national-material-capabilities-v4-0.

  41. 41.

    Robert Białoskórski, Łukasz Kiczma, and Miroslav Šulek, National Power Rankings of Countries 2019 (Warsaw: Powermetric Research Network, 2019), accessed December 19, 2019. https://prnet.org.pl/img/pub/national-power-rankings-of-countries-2019.pdf.

  42. 42.

    “Index of National Power. How to Assess the Basic Capacity of a Nation (NPI),” National Power Project, accessed December 19, 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190125170433/http://www.nationalpower.info/npi.

  43. 43.

    “World Economic Outlook Database, WEO update October 2019,” International Monetary Fund. 15 October 2019, accessed September 3, 2019. https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/02/weodata/index.aspx.

  44. 44.

    United Nations Statistical Division. “Demographic Yearbook”, accessed September 18, 2020. https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2012.htm.

  45. 45.

    Martin T. Katzman, “Translating Brazil’s Economic Potential into International Influence,” in Brazil in the International System, ed. Wayne A. Selcher, 99 (1981). (Reprint, New York: Routledge, 2018).

  46. 46.

    Hal Brands, Dilemmas of Brazilian Grand Strategy (Carlisle: Strategic Studies Institute Publications, 2010), 32.

  47. 47.

    Arturo C. Porzecanski, ‘’Brazil’s Place in the Global Economy,” in Brazil on the Global Stage Power, Ideas, and the Liberal International Order, eds. Oliver Stuenkel and Matthew M. Taylor (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 144.

  48. 48.

    This refers to lost productivity due to poor infrastructure and bureaucracy in business.

  49. 49.

    “Belinda” is a contraction of Belgium (highly developed country) and India (a developing, but expansive one).

  50. 50.

    Spanakos and Marques, “Brazil’s Rise,” 214–215.

  51. 51.

    Marion Jacques, Tanguy Struye de Swielande and Tanguy de Wilde d’Estmael, “Belgium: The Capacities of a Middle Power, but the Ambitions of a Small Power?,” in Awkward Powers: Escaping Traditional Great and Middle Power Theory, eds. Gabriele Abbondanza and Thomas Wilkins (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021), 349–371.

  52. 52.

    Gabriele Abbondanza, “The Odd Axis: Germany, Italy, and Japan as Awkward Great Powers,” in Awkward Powers: Escaping Traditional Great and Middle Power Theory, eds. Gabriele Abbondanza and Thomas Wilkins (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021), 43–71.

  53. 53.

    Annual Report 2018 (Geneva: World Trade Organization, 2019): 180.

  54. 54.

    José Miguel Martins, and Raul Nunes, “Política Externa, Política de Defesa e Modelo de Desenvolvimento no Brasil: do Estado Desenvolvimentista ao Estado Logístico (19302017),Austral: Brazilian Journal of Strategy and International Relations 6, no. 12 (2017): 213.

  55. 55.

    Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1948), 152.

  56. 56.

    John J. Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2001), 55.

  57. 57.

    Burges, “Brazil,” 136.

  58. 58.

    “Brazil Military Strength (2020),” Global Fire Power, accessed December 19, 2019. https://www.globalfirepower.com/country-military-strength-detail.asp?country_id=brazil

  59. 59.

    Elcano, Elcano Global Presence Report 2018 (Madrid: Real Instituto Elcano, 2018), 45–48.

  60. 60.

    Credit Suisse Research Institute, The End of Globalization or a More Multipolar World? (Zurich: Credit Suisse, 2015), 41.

  61. 61.

    The International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS), The Military Balance 2019 (London: Routledge, 2019), 21–27; 400.

  62. 62.

    Burges, “Brazil,” 137.

  63. 63.

    Max G. Manwaring, “Brazilian Military Power: A Capability Analysis,” in Brazil in the International System, ed. Wayne A. Selcher, 67 (1981). (Reprint, New York: Routledge, 2018).

  64. 64.

    Rohter, Brazil on the Rise, 241.

  65. 65.

    Manwaring, “Brazilian Military Power,” 89.

  66. 66.

    Rohter, Brazil on the Rise , 234.

  67. 67.

    Layla Dawood and Monica Herz, “Nuclear Governance in Latin America,” Contexto Internacional 35, no. 2 (2013): 501–505.

  68. 68.

    Brasil, Constituição da República Federativa do Brasil de 1988. Brasília, D.O.U., 1988, 191-A.

  69. 69.

    Burges, “Mistaking Brazil,” 288 [Italics added].

  70. 70.

    Martins and Nunes, “Política Externa e Política de Defesa,” 193.

  71. 71.

    Khanna, Second World, 152.

  72. 72.

    Joseph S. Nye Jr, Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (New York: Public Affairs, 2004), 18–21.

  73. 73.

    Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics, 43–44.

  74. 74.

    Ralph Espach, “The Risks of Pragmatism: Brazil’s Relations with the United States and the International Security Order,” in Brazil on the Global Stage Power, Ideas, and the Liberal International Order, eds. Oliver Stuenkel and Matthew M. Taylor (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 58.

  75. 75.

    Espach, “The Risks of Pragmatism,” 59.

  76. 76.

    Rezende, Sobe e Desce, 289–299.

  77. 77.

    Stuenkel and Taylor, “Brazil on the Global Stage,” 1–2.

  78. 78.

    Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, 539.

  79. 79.

    Martin A. Smith, Power in the Changing Global Order: The US, Russia and China (Cambridge: Polity, 2012), 4.

  80. 80.

    Stuenkel and Taylor, “Brazil on the Global Stage,” 8.

  81. 81.

    Burges, “Mistaking Brazil,” 296.

  82. 82.

    Ronaldo M. Sardenberg, “Brasil, política multilateral e Nações Unidas,Estudos Avançados 19, no. 53 (2005): 347.

  83. 83.

    Lopes, Dawisson B. Política Externa e Democracia no Brasil: ensaio de interpretação histórica (São Paulo: Editora UNESP, 2013), 266–268.

  84. 84.

    Amado Luiz Cervo and Clodoaldo Bueno, História da política exterior do Brasil (Brasília: Editora Universidade de Brasília, 2015), 11.

  85. 85.

    Carlos Aurélio P. de Faria, “O Itamaraty e a Política Externa Brasileira: do Insulamento à Busca de Coordenação dos Atores Governamentais e de Cooperação com os Agentes Societários,Contexto Internacional 34, no. 1 (Jan–Jun 2012): 311–315.

  86. 86.

    Stuenkel and Taylor, “Brazil on the Global Stage,” 8.

  87. 87.

    Stuenkel and Taylor, “Brazil on the Global Stage,” 9.

  88. 88.

    Stuenkel and Taylor, “Brazil on the Global Stage,” 14.

  89. 89.

    Celso Amorim, Teerã, Ramalá e Doha: memórias da política externa ativa e altiva (São Paulo: Benvirá, 2015).

  90. 90.

    David Bosco and Oliver Stuenkel, “The Rhetoric and Reality of Brazil’s Multilateralism,” in Brazil on the Global Stage Power, Ideas, and the Liberal International Order, eds. Oliver Stuenkel and Matthew M. Taylor (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 17.

  91. 91.

    Sardenberg, “Brasil, política multilateral;” Vargas, Campanha Permanente.

  92. 92.

    Celso Amorim, “Statement by Minister Celso Amorim, at the Opening of the General Debate of the 65th Session of the United Nations General Assembly—New York, 23 September 2010,” Brazilian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, accessed March 27, 2020. http://www.itamaraty.gov.br/en/speeches-articles-and-interviews/8078-statement-by-minister-celso-amorim-at-the-opening-of-the-general-debate-of-the-65th-session-of-the-united-nations-general-assembly-new-york-23-september-2010.

  93. 93.

    Peter Nadin, UN Security Council Reform (London: Routledge, 2016), 43–71.

  94. 94.

    Bosco and Stuenkel, “The Rhetoric and Reality,” 27.

  95. 95.

    Paulo Visentini et al., BRICS: As Potências Emergentes (Petrópolis: Editora Vozes, 2013); Oliver Stuenkel, The BRICS and the Future of Global Order (Lanham: Lexington Book, 2015).

  96. 96.

    Amado Luiz Cervo, and Antônio Carlos Lessa, “O declínio: inserção internacional do Brasil (20112014),Rev. Bras. Pol. Int. 57, no. 2 (2014): 142.

  97. 97.

    Helio Jaguaribe, “Argentina, Brazil and the World in the Face of the 20th Century,” Relaciones Internacionales 14, no. 29 (2006): 41–43.

  98. 98.

    Rezende, Sobe e Desce, 283; Detlef Nolte, and Nicolás M. Comini, “UNASUR: Regional Pluralism as a Strategic Outcome,” Contexto Internacional 38, no. 2 (2016): 554; Alcides C. Vaz, Alexandre Fuccille, and Lucas P. Rezende, “UNASUR, Brazil, and the South American Defence Cooperation: A Decade Later,” Rev. Bras. Pol. Int. 60, no. 2 (2017), e012: 7.

  99. 99.

    Malamud, “A Leader Without Followers?,” 1–2.

  100. 100.

    Stuenkel and Taylor, “Brazil on the Global Stage,” 9.

  101. 101.

    Stuenkel and Taylor, “Brazil on the Global Stage,” 3.

  102. 102.

    Burges, Brazil in the World, 65.

  103. 103.

    Vaz, Fuccille, and Rezende, “UNASUR, Brazil…,” 16–17.

  104. 104.

    Herschberg, “Foreword,” xii.

  105. 105.

    Jordaan, “The Concept of a Middle Power…”.

  106. 106.

    Yolanda Spies, “The Equivocal Power of South Africa,” in Awkward Powers: Escaping Traditional Great and Middle Power Theory, eds. Gabriele Abbondanza and Thomas Wilkins (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021), 199–219.

  107. 107.

    Soares de Lima and Hirst, “Brazil as an Intermediate State,” 33.

  108. 108.

    Bosco and Stuenkel, “The Rhetoric and Reality,” 58.

  109. 109.

    Spanakos and Marques, “Brazil’s Rise,” 219.

  110. 110.

    Spanakos and Marques, “Brazil’s Rise,” 219.

  111. 111.

    Casarões, “Making Sense of Bolsonaro’s Foreign Policy”.

  112. 112.

    Giorgio R. Schutte, Bruno C. D. da Fonseca, and Gabriel S. Carneiro. “Jogo de Dois Níveis Voltado ao Eleitorado: uma análise da política externa bolsonarista,Conjuntura Global 8, no. 2 (2019): 97–116.

  113. 113.

    Miriam Gomes Saraiva, “Brazil’s Rise and Its Soft Power Strategy in South America,” in Foreign Policy Responses to the Rise of Brazil. Balancing Power in Emerging States, eds. Gian Luca Gardini, and Maria Hermínia T. de Almeida (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016).

  114. 114.

    Soares de Lima and Hirst, “Brazil as an Intermediate State,” 21.

  115. 115.

    Joseph A. Page, The Brazilians (New York: Hachette Books, 1995).

  116. 116.

    Smith, Power in the Changing Global Order, 21 [Italics original].

  117. 117.

    Casarões, “Making Sense of Bolsonaro’s Foreign Policy”.

  118. 118.

    Casarões, “Making Sense of Bolsonaro’s Foreign Policy”.

  119. 119.

    Burges, “Mistaking Brazil,” 287.

  120. 120.

    Burges, “Mistaking Brazil,” 290.

  121. 121.

    Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, 145.

  122. 122.

    Burges, Brazil in the World, 49.

  123. 123.

    Gardini, “Brazil,” 10.

  124. 124.

    Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 2011).

  125. 125.

    Sean W. Burges, “Brazil as a Bridge Between Old and New Powers?” International Affairs 89, no. 3 (May 2013): 578.

  126. 126.

    Letícia de A. Pinheiro, Política Externa Brasileira (18892002) (Rio de Janeiro: Jorge Zahar Editora, 2004); Alexandra de Mello e Silva, “Ideias e Política Externa: a atuação brasileira na Liga das Nações e na ONU,Rev. Bras. Pol. Int., 41, no. 2 (1998): 141–142.

  127. 127.

    Soares de Lima and Hirst, “Brazil as an Intermediate State,” 22.

  128. 128.

    Brands, Dilemmas of Brazilian Grand Strategy, 24.

  129. 129.

    Brigitte Weiffen and Rafael Duarte Villa, “Re-thinking Latin American Regional Security: The Impact of Power and Politics,” in Power Dynamics and Regional Security in Latin America, eds. Marcial A. G. Suarez, Rafael Duarte Villa, and Brigitte Weiffen (London: Palgrave Macmillian, 2017), 12.

  130. 130.

    Alexandre Fuccille, and Lucas P. Rezende, “Complexo Regional de Segurança da América do Sul: Uma Nova Perspectiva,Contexto Internacional 35, no. 1 (Jan–June 2013): 84–85.

  131. 131.

    Burges, Brazil in the World, 50.

  132. 132.

    Burges, Mistaking Brazil, 290.

  133. 133.

    Brands, Dilemmas of Brazilian Grand Strategy, 6.

  134. 134.

    Getúlio Vargas, O governo Trabalhista do Brasil, volume 2 (Rio de Janeiro: José Olympio, 1954), 114.

  135. 135.

    Gardini, “Brazil,” 7.

  136. 136.

    Gardini, “Brazil,” 11.

  137. 137.

    Malamud, “A Leader Without Followers?,” 18.

  138. 138.

    Emili Willrich and Lucas P. Rezende, “Sobre a identidade sul-americana em defesa na UNASUL,Rev. Esc. Guerra Nav. 24, no. 1 (2018): 113–114.

  139. 139.

    Rohter, Brazil on the Rise, 225.

  140. 140.

    Soares de Lima and Hirst, “Brazil as an Intermediate State,” 38.

  141. 141.

    Spanakos and Marques, “Brazil’s Rise,” 219.

  142. 142.

    Stefan Zweig, Brasil, um país do futuro. Translation to Portuguese by Kristina Michahelles (Porto Alegre: L&PM, 2008); Marilena Chauí, “Cultura política e política cultural,Estudos Avançados 9, no. 23 (1995): 80.

  143. 143.

    Spanakos and Marques, “Brazil’s Rise,” 215.

  144. 144.

    Burges, “Brazil as a Bridge,” 578.

  145. 145.

    Selcher, “Brazil in the World,” 51 [Italics original].

  146. 146.

    Katzman, “Translating Brazil’s Economic Potential,” 99.

  147. 147.

    Reid, “Brazil,” 243.

  148. 148.

    Schneider, “Foreword”, xvii.

  149. 149.

    Rohter, Brazil on the Rise, 7.

References

  • Abbondanza, Gabriele. “The Odd Axis: Germany, Italy, and Japan as Awkward Great Powers”. In Awkward Powers: Escaping Traditional Great and Middle Power Theory, edited by G. Abbondanza and T. Wilkins, 43–71. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021.

    Google Scholar 

  • Abbondanza, Gabriele and Thomas Wilkins. “The Case for Awkward Powers”. In Awkward Powers: Escaping Traditional Great and Middle Power Theory, edited by G. Abbondanza and T. Wilkins, 3–39. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amorim Neto, Octavio. De Dutra a Lula: a condução e os determinantes da política externa brasileira. Rio de Janeiro: Elsevier, 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amorim, Celso. “Statement by Minister Celso Amorim, at the Opening of the General Debate of the 65th Session of the United Nations General Assembly—New York, 23 September 2010.” Brazilian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Accessed March 27, 2020. http://www.itamaraty.gov.br/en/speeches-articles-and-interviews/8078-statement-by-minister-celso-amorim-at-the-opening-of-the-general-debate-of-the-65th-session-of-the-united-nations-general-assembly-new-york-23-september-2010.

  • Amorim, Celso. Teerã, Ramalá e Doha: memórias da política externa ativa e altiva. São Paulo: Benvirá, 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  • Annual Report 2018. Geneva: World Trade Organization, 2019.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, Norman, and Ronald Schneider. “Brazil’s Foreign Policy: A Case Study in Upward Mobility.” Inter-American Economic Affairs XXVII (1974): 3–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Białoskórski, Robert, Łukasz Kiczma, and Miroslav Šulek. National Power Rankings of Countries 2019. Warsaw: Powermetric Research Network, 2019. Accessed December 19, 2019. https://prnet.org.pl/img/pub/national-power-rankings-of-countries-2019.pdf.

  • Bond, Robert D. “Brazil’s Relations with the Northern Tier Countries of South America.” In Brazil in the International System, edited by Wayne A. Selcher, 1981. Reprint, New York: Routledge, 2018: 123–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bosco, David, and Oliver Stuenkel. “The Rhetoric and Reality of Brazil’s Multilateralism.” In Brazil on the Global Stage Power, Ideas, and the Liberal International Order, edited by Oliver Stuenkel, and Matthew M. Taylor. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brands, Hal. Dilemmas of Brazilian Grand Strategy. Carlisle: Strategic Studies Institute Publications, 2010.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Brasil. Constituição da República Federativa do Brasil de 1988. Brasília, D.O.U., 1988, 191-A.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bratman, Eve Z. “Brazil’s Ambivalent Challenge to Global Environmental Norms.” In Brazil on the Global Stage Power, Ideas, and the Liberal International Order, edited by Oliver Stuenkel and Matthew M. Taylor. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015: 95–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burges, Sean W. “Brazil as a Bridge Between Old and New Powers?” International Affairs 89, no. 3 (May 2013): 577–594. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2346.12034.

  • Burges, Sean. “Mistaking Brazil for a Middle Power.” Journal of Iberian and Latin American Research 19, no. 2 (2013): 286–302. Issue 2: Latin America and the Shifting Sands of Global Power. https://doi.org/10.1080/13260219.2013.853358.

  • Burges, Sean. Brazil in the World: The International Relations of a South American Giant. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2017.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carr, Andrew. “Is Australia a Middle Power? A Systemic Impact Approach.” Australian Journal of International Affairs 68, no. 1 (2013): 70–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/10357718.2013.840264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Casarões, Guilherme. “Making Sense of Bolsonaro’s Foreign Policy at Year One.” Americas Quarterly, January 7, 2020. https://www.americasquarterly.org/content/making-sense-bolsonaros-foreign-policy-year-one.

  • Cervo, Amado Luiz, and Antônio Carlos Lessa. “O declínio: inserção internacional do Brasil (2011-2014).” Rev. Bras. Pol. Int. 57, no. 2 (2014): 133–151. https://doi.org/10.1590/0034-7329201400308.

  • Cervo, Amado Luiz, and Clodoaldo Bueno. História da política exterior do Brasil. Brasília: Editora Universidade de Brasília, 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chauí, Marilena. “Cultura política e política cultural.Estudos Avançados 9, no. 23 (1995): 71-84. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-40141995000100006

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dawood, Layla, and Monica Herz. “Nuclear Governance in Latin America.” Contexto Internacional 35, no. 2 (2013): 497–535.https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-85292013000200007.

  • Elcano. Elcano Global Presence Report 2018. Madrid: Real Instituto Elcano, 2018.

    Google Scholar 

  • Espach, Ralph. “The Risks of Pragmatism: Brazil’s Relations with the United States and the International Security Order.” In Brazil on the Global Stage Power, Ideas, and the Liberal International Order, edited by Oliver Stuenkel and Matthew M. Taylor. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  • Faria, Carlos Aurélio P. de. “O Itamaraty e a Política Externa Brasileira: do Insulamento à Busca de Coordenação dos Atores Governamentais e de Cooperação com os Agentes Societários”. Contexto Internacional 34, no. 1 (Jan–Jun 2012): 311–355. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-85292012000100009.

  • Fuccille, Alexandre, and Lucas P. Rezende. “Complexo Regional de Segurança da América do Sul: Uma Nova Perspectiva.” Contexto Internacional 35, no. 1 (Jan–June 2013): 77–104. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-85292013000100003.

  • Garcia, Eugênio V. “Sobre como o Brasil quase se tornou um membro permanente do Conselho de Segurança das Nações Unidas em 1945.Rev. Bras. Pol. Int. 54, no. 1 (2011): 159–177. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0034-73292011000100010.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gardini, Gian Luca. “Brazil: What Rise of What Power?” Bulletin of Latin American Research 35, no. 1 (2016): 5–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Global Fire Power. “Brazil Military Strength (2020).” Accessed December 19, 2019. https://www.globalfirepower.com/country-military-strength-detail.asp?country_id=brazil.

  • Goldstein, Joshua S. International Relations, 2nd edition. New York: HarperCollins, 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grabendorff, Wolf. “Brazil and West Germany: A Model for First World-Third World Relations?” In Brazil in the International System, edited by Wayne A. Selcher, 1981. Reprint, New York: Routledge, 2018: 181–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herschberg, Eric. “Foreword.” In Brazil on the Global Stage Power, Ideas, and the Liberal International Order, edited by Oliver Stuenkel and Matthew M. Taylor, i–vii. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huntington, Samuel P. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hurrell, Andrew. “Brazil: What Kind of Rising State in What Kind of International Order.” In Rising States, Rising Institutions: Challenges for Global Governance, edited by Alan S. Alexandroff and Andrew F. Cooper, 128–150. Baltimore: Brookings Institution Press, 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  • International Monetary Fund. “World Economic Outlook Database, WEO update October 2019.” October 15, 2019. Accessed September 3, 2019. https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/02/weodata/index.aspx.

  • Jacques, Marion, Tanguy Struye de Swielande and Tanguy de Wilde d’Estmael. “Belgium: The Capacities of a Middle Power, but the Ambitions of a Small Power?”. In Awkward Powers: Escaping Traditional Great and Middle Power Theory, edited by G. Abbondanza and T. Wilkins, 349–371. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jaguaribe, Helio. “Argentina, Brazil and the World in the Face of the 20th Century.” Relaciones Internacionales 14, no. 29 (2006): 41–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jordaan, Eduard. “The Concept of a Middle Power in International Relations: Distinguishing between Emerging and Traditional Middle Powers.” Politikon: South African Journal of Political Studies 30, no. 1 (2003): 165–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/0258934032000147282.

  • Katzman, Martin T. “Translating Brazil’s Economic Potential into International Influence.” In Brazil in the International System, edited by Wayne A. Selcher, 1981. Reprint, New York: Routledge, 2018.

    Google Scholar 

  • Khanna, Parag. The Second World: Empires and Influence in the New Global Order. London: Allen Lane, 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  • Landry, David M. “Brazil’s New Regional and Global Roles” World Affairs 137 (Summer 1974): 23–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lopes, Dawisson B. Política Externa e Democracia no Brasil: ensaio de interpretação histórica. São Paulo: Editora da UNESP, 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malamud, Andrés. “A Leader without Followers? The Growing Divergence between the Regional and Global Performance of Brazilian Foreign Policy.” Latin American Politics and Society 53, no. 3 (Fall 2011): 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-2456.2011.00123.x.

  • Manwaring, Max G. “Brazilian Military Power: A Capability Analysis.” In Brazil in the International System, edited by Wayne A. Selcher, 1981. Reprint, New York: Routledge, 2018.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martins, José Miguel, and Raul Nunes. “Política Externa, Política de Defesa e Modelo de Desenvolvimento no Brasil: do Estado Desenvolvimentista ao Estado Logístico (1930-2017).Austral: Brazilian Journal of Strategy and International Relations 6, no. 12 (2017): 190–221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mearsheimer, John J. The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2001.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mello e Silva, Alexandra de. “Ideias e Política Externa: a atuação brasileira na Liga das Nações e na ONU.Rev. Bras. Pol. Int., 41, no. 2 (1998): 139–158. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0034-73291998000200008.

  • Michael Reid, Brazil: The Troubled Rise of a Global Power. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgenthau, Hans J. Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1948.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nadin, Peter. UN Security Council Reform. London: Routledge, 2016.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • National Power Project. “Index of National Power (NPI). How to Assess the Basic Capacity of a Nation.” Accessed December 19, 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190125170433/http://www.nationalpower.info/npi.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolte, Detlef. “How to Compare Regional Powers: Analytical Concepts and Research Topics.” Review of International Studies 36 (2010): 881–901. https://doi.org/10.1017/S026021051000135X.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nolte, Detlef, and Nicolás M. Comini. “UNASUR: Regional Pluralism as a Strategic Outcome.” Contexto Internacional 38, no. 2, (2016): 545–565. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-8529.2016380200002.

  • Nye Jr, Joseph S. Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics. New York: Public Affairs, 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  • Page, Joseph A. The Brazilians. New York: Hachette Books, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry, William. “Contemporary Brazilian Foreign Policy: the International Strategy of an Emerging Power,” Foreign Policy Papers 2, no. 6. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pinheiro, Letícia de A. Política Externa Brasileira (1889–2002). Rio de Janeiro: Jorge Zahar Editora, 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  • Porzecanski, Arturo C. ‘’Brazil’s Place in the Global Economy,” in Brazil on the Global Stage Power, Ideas, and the Liberal International Order, edited by Oliver Stuenkel and Matthew M. Taylor. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rezende, Lucas P. Sobe e Desce: Explicando a Cooperação em Defesa na América do Sul. Brasília: Editora Universidade de Brasília, 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roett, Riordan. “Brazil Ascendant: International Relations and Geopolitics in the Late 20th Century.” Journal of International Affairs 29, no. 2 (Fall 1975): 139–154.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rohter, Larry. Brazil on the Rise: The Story of a Country Transformed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saraiva, Miriam Gomes. “Brazil’s Rise and Its Soft Power Strategy in South America.” In Foreign Policy Responses to the Rise of Brazil. Balancing Power in Emerging States, edited by Gian Luca Gardini, and Maria Hermínia T. de Almeida. New York: Palgrave Macmillian, 2016.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sardenberg, Ronaldo M. “Brasil, política multilateral e Nações Unidas.” Estudos Avançados 19, no. 53 (2005): 347–367. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-40142005000100023.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, Ronald M. “Foreword.” In Brazil in the International System, edited by Wayne A. Selcher, 1981. Reprint, New York: Routledge, 2018.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schenoni, Luis L. “Divide et Impera. La lógica realista de la unipolaridade Sudamericana.Desarrollo Económico 57, no. 222 (2017): 253-276.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, Ronald M. Brazil: Foreign Policy of a Future World Power. Boulder: Westview Press, 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schutte, Giorgio R., Bruno C. D. da Fonseca, and Gabriel S. Carneiro. “Jogo de Dois Níveis Voltado ao Eleitorado: uma análise da política externa bolsonarista.” Conjuntura Global 8, no. 2 (2019): 97–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Selcher, Wayne A. “Brazil in the World: A Ranking Analysis of Capability and Status Measures.” In Brazil in the International System, edited by Wayne A. Selcher, 1981, 25–63. Reprint, New York: Routledge, 2018.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, Martin A. Power in the Changing Global Order: The US, Russia and China. Cambridge: Polity, 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  • Soares de Lima, Maria Regina, and Monica Hirst. “Brazil as an Intermediate State and Regional Power: Action, Choice and Responsibilities.” International Affairs 82, no. 1 (January, 2006): 21–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spanakos, Anthony Peter, and Joseph Marques. “Brazil’s Rise as a Middle Power.” In Middle Powers and the Rise of China, edited by Bruce Gilley and Andrew O’Neil. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2014: 213–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spies, Yolanda. “The Equivocal Power of South Africa”. In Awkward Powers: Escaping Traditional Great and Middle Power Theory, edited by G. Abbondanza and T. Wilkins, 199–219. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stuenkel, Oliver, and Matthew M. Taylor. “Brazil on the Global Stage: Origins and Consequences of Brazil’s Challenge to the Global Liberal Order.” In Brazil on the Global Stage Power, Ideas, and the Liberal International Order, edited by Oliver Stuenkel and Matthew M. Taylor, 1–16. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Stuenkel, Oliver. The BRICS and the Future of Global Order. Lanham: Lexington Book, 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  • The Correlates of War Project. “Composite Indicator of National Capability (CINC), National Material Capabilities (NMC_v5.0).” Accessed December 19, 2019. https://correlatesofwar.org/data-sets/national-material-capabilities/nmc-v5-1/at_download/file.

  • The International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS). The Military Balance 2019: The Annual Assessment of Global Military Capabilities and Defence Economics. London: Routledge, 2019.

    Google Scholar 

  • United Nations Statistical Division. “Demographic Yearbook”. Accessed September 18, 2020. https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2012.htm.

  • Vargas, Getúlio. O governo Trabalhista do Brasil, volume 2. Rio de Janeiro: José Olympio, 1954.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vargas, João A. C. Campanha Permanente: o Brasil e a Reforma do Conselho de Segurança da ONU. Rio de Janeiro: Editora FGV, 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vaz, Alcides C., Alexandre Fuccille, and Lucas P. Rezende. “UNASUR, Brazil, and the South American Defence Cooperation: A Decade Later.” Rev. Bras. Pol. Int. 60, no. 2 (2017) e012: 1–21. https://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0034-7329201700212.

  • Visentini, Paulo, et al. BRICS: As Potências Emergentes. Petrópolis: Editora Vozes, 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiffen, Brigitte, and Rafael Duarte Villa. “Re-thinking Latin American Regional Security: The Impact of Power and Politics.” In Power Dynamics and Regional Security in Latin America, edited by Marcial A. G. Suarez, Rafael Duarte Villa, and Brigitte Weiffen. London: Palgrave Macmillian, 2017.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willrich, Emili, and Lucas P. Rezende. “Sobre a identidade sul-americana em defesa na UNASUL.” Rev. Esc. Guerra Nav. 24, no. 1 (2018): 96–119. https://doi.org/10.22491/1809-3191.v24n1.p.96-119.

  • Zweig, Stefan. Brasil, um país do futuro. Translation to Portuguese by Kristina Michahelles. Porto Alegre: L&PM, 2008.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Thomas Stow Wilkins .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Wilkins, T.S., Rezende, L.P. (2022). A Liminal and Transitional Awkward Power: Brazil Betwixt the Great and Middle Powers. In: Abbondanza, G., Wilkins, T.S. (eds) Awkward Powers: Escaping Traditional Great and Middle Power Theory. Global Political Transitions. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-0370-9_4

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics