Abstract
DNA genotyping, which started in the 1990s to identify convicts, has become the most sought-after area in forensics. Human Identification (HID) by analyzing the fragment lengths of specific regions in DNA, such as Short Tandem Repeats (STRs), using Capillary Electrophoresis (CE) based method has changed the way forensic cases are resolved. What started with just four STR markers in the 1990s, analyses based on CE had seen many innovations, with now multiple markers systems used including autosomal STRs, Y- STRs, X- STR, and SNPs. With the use of multiple STR markers, case analysis and resolution improved tremendously, scientist now can process DNA that is highly degraded, minimal, contaminated, or decades old, with increased positive outcomes. With analysis of Short Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs), it is now possible to estimate ancestry, predict phenotype, and determine relationships with confidence. Advanced systems are now available to resolve cases, with co-amplification of multiple markers, and multiple combination systems like (Autosomal + Sex Chromosomal markers or Autosomal + SNP markers or Autosomal + Sex Chromosomal + SNP Markers together) to analyze DNA. These systems promise to make analysis efficient, specific, faster, and cost effective. Implementation of Next Generation Sequencing in forensics, and high-throughput sequence data obtained from NGS makes analysis of haplotypes, isometric alleles, heteroplasmy, mixture samples, kinship, mono-zygotic twin analysis, visible traits, geographic ancestry, identity, all possible in a single run. In this chapter we discuss novel approaches taken in genotyping, the use of systems developed in multiplexing, co-amplification, and multiple marker interrogation in single analysis setup.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
References
B B, MW A, MR W, R C (2003) Forensics and mitochondrial DNA: applications, debates, and foundations. Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet 4:119–141. https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV.GENOM.4.070802.110352
Ballard D, Winkler-Galicki J, Wesoły J (2020) Massive parallel sequencing in forensics: advantages, issues, technicalities, and prospects. Int J Legal Med 1344(134):1291–1303. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00414-020-02294-0
Blanco A, Blanco G (2017) The genetic information (I). Med Biochem:465–492. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-803550-4.00021-5
Bornman DM, Hester ME, Schuetter JM, Kasoji MD, Minard-Smith A, Barden CA, Nelson SC, Godbold GD, Baker CH, Yang B, Walther JE, Tornes IE, Yan PS, Rodriguez B, Bundschuh R, Dickens ML, Young BA, Faith SA (2012) Short-read, high-throughput sequencing technology for STR genotyping. Biotech Rapid Dispatch 2012:1
Børsting C, Pereira V, Andersen JD, Morling N (2014) Single nucleotide polymorphism. Wiley Encycl Forensic Sci:1–18. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470061589.FSA1113
Bruijns B, Tiggelaar R, Gardeniers H (2018) Massively parallel sequencing techniques for forensics: a review. Electrophoresis 39:2642–2654. https://doi.org/10.1002/ELPS.201800082
Budowle B (1998) CODIS and PCR-based short tandem repeat loci: law enforcement tools. Promega
Budowle B, van Daal A (2018) Forensically relevant SNP classes. Biotechniques 44:603–610. https://doi.org/10.2144/000112806
Butler JM (1998) The use of capillary electrophoresis in genotyping STR loci. Methods Mol Biol 98:279–289. https://doi.org/10.1385/0-89603-443-7:279
Butler JM (2006) Genetics and genomics of core short tandem repeat loci used in human identity testing. J Forensic Sci 51:253–265. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1556-4029.2006.00046.X
Butler JM (2012a) X-chromosome analysis. Adv Top Forensic DNA Typing:457–472. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374513-2.00015-4
Butler JM (2012b) Single nucleotide polymorphisms and applications. Adv Top Forensic DNA Typing:347–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374513-2.00012-9
C K, D F, S W, M A, A U, J L, P G (1994) Evaluation of an automated DNA profiling system employing multiplex amplification of four tetrameric STR loci. Int J Legal Med 106:302–311. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01224776
Chen HY, Ma SL, Huang W, Ji L, Leung VHK, Jiang H, Yao X, NLS T (2016) The mechanism of transactivation regulation due to polymorphic short tandem repeats (STRs) using IGF1 promoter as a model. Sci Reports 61(6):1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep38225
Chong KWY, Syn CK-C (2021) Uncertainty in estimating the number of contributors from simulated DNA mixture profiles, with and without allele dropout, from Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Caucasian ethnic populations. Sci Reports 111 11:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-84580-4
CL H, M B, JM W, T N, KD L, PS W (2002) TWGDAM validation of AmpFlSTR PCR amplification kits for forensic DNA casework. J Forensic Sci 47:66–96
Cowell RG, Graversen T, Lauritzen SL, Mortera J (2015) Analysis of forensic DNA mixtures with artefacts. J R Stat Soc Ser C (Appl Stat) 64:1–48. https://doi.org/10.1111/RSSC.12071
Divne AM, Edlund H, Allen M (2010) Forensic analysis of autosomal STR markers using pyrosequencing. Forensic Sci Int Genet 4:122–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FSIGEN.2009.07.004
Dong Y, Lin SS, Cao Y, Wu WW, Huang SQ, Zheng WG, Li FY, Ge BW, Guo YL, Zhou HG (2015) Development of a forensic multiplex amplification STR kit for 15 autosomal STR loci and 10 Y-STR loci. J Forensic Med 31. https://doi.org/10.3969/J.ISSN.1004-5619.2015.05.011
Edwards A, Civitello A, Hammond HA, Caskey CT (1991) DNA typing and genetic mapping with trimeric and tetrameric tandem repeats. Am J Hum Genet 49:746
Edwards A, Hammond HA, Jin L, Caskey CT, Chakraborty R (1992) Genetic variation at five trimeric and tetrameric tandem repeat loci in four human population groups. Genomics 12:241–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/0888-7543(92)90371-X
England R, Harbison S (2020) A review of the method and validation of the MiSeq FGx™ forensic genomics solution. WIREs Forensic Sci 2. https://doi.org/10.1002/WFS2.1351
Faccinetto C, Serventi P, Staiti N, Gentile F, Marino A (2019) Internal validation study of the next generation sequencing of Globalfiler™ PCR amplification kit for the ion torrent S5 sequencer. Forensic Sci Int Genet Suppl Ser 7:336–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FSIGSS.2019.10.002
Freire-Aradas A, Fondevila M, Kriegel AK, Phillips C, Gill P, Prieto L, Schneider PM, Carracedo A, Lareu MV (2012) A new SNP assay for identification of highly degraded human DNA. Forensic Sci Int Genet 6:341–349. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FSIGEN.2011.07.010
Ge J, Eisenberg A, Budowle B (2012) Developing criteria and data to determine best options for expanding the core CODIS loci. Investig Genet 3:1. https://doi.org/10.1186/2041-2223-3-1
Gettings KB, Kiesler KM, Vallone PM (2015) Performance of a next generation sequencing SNP assay on degraded DNA. Forensic Sci Int Genet 19:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FSIGEN.2015.04.010
Giannopoulou E, Katsila T, Mitropoulou C, Tsermpini E-E, Patrinos GP (2019) Integrating next-generation sequencing in the clinical pharmacogenomics workflow. Front Pharmacol 10:384. https://doi.org/10.3389/FPHAR.2019.00384
Goodwin W (William H), Linacre A, Hadi S (2011) An introduction to forensic. Genetics:198
Greytak EM, Moore CC, Armentrout SL (2019) Genetic genealogy for cold case and active investigations. Forensic Sci Int 299:103–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FORSCIINT.2019.03.039
Guo F, Yu J, Zhang L, Li J (2017) Massively parallel sequencing of forensic STRs and SNPs using the Illumina® ForenSeq™ DNA Signature Prep Kit on the MiSeq FGx™ forensic genomics system. Forensic Sci Int Genet 31:135–148
HM G, C W, SY H, SH S, DJ X, YS W, CT L, MX Z (2017) Analysis of the 19 Y-STR and 16 X-STR loci system in the Han population of Shandong province. China Genet Mol Res 16. https://doi.org/10.4238/GMR16019573
Hochmeister MN, Budowle B, Borer UV, Eggmann U, Comey CT, Dirnhofer R (1991) Typing of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) extracted from compact bone from human remains. J Forensic Sci 36:13189J
Irwin J, Just R, Scheible M, Loreille O (2011) Assessing the potential of next generation sequencing technologies for missing persons identification efforts. Forensic Sci Int Genet Suppl Ser 3:e447–e448. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FSIGSS.2011.09.085
Jäger AC, Alvarez ML, Davis CP, Guzmán E, Han Y, Way L, Walichiewicz P, Silva D, Pham N, Caves G, Bruand J, Schlesinger F, Pond SJK, Varlaro J, Stephens KM, Holt CL (2017) Developmental validation of the MiSeq FGx forensic genomics system for targeted next generation sequencing in forensic DNA casework and database laboratories. Forensic Sci Int Genet 28:52–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FSIGEN.2017.01.011
Jian H, Wang L, Lv M, Tan Y, Zhang R, Qu S, Wang J, Zha L, Zhang L, Liang W (2021) A novel SNP-STR system based on a capillary electrophoresis platform. Front Genet 12:96. https://doi.org/10.3389/FGENE.2021.636821
JL K, BL L, NM N, M S, SB S, X Z, DH W, CP D, W P, A S, B B (2014) High-quality and high-throughput massively parallel sequencing of the human mitochondrial genome using the Illumina MiSeq. Forensic Sci Int Genet 12:128–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FSIGEN.2014.06.001
JM B, E B, F C, BR M (2004) Forensic DNA typing by capillary electrophoresis using the ABI prism 310 and 3100 genetic analyzers for STR analysis. Electrophoresis 25:1397–1412. https://doi.org/10.1002/ELPS.200305822
Just RS, Irwin JA, Parson W (2015) Mitochondrial DNA heteroplasmy in the emerging field of massively parallel sequencing. Forensic Sci Int Genet 18:131–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FSIGEN.2015.05.003
Kimpton C, Fisher D, Watson S, Adams M, Urquhart A, Lygo J, Gill P (1994) Evaluation of an automated DNA profiling system employing multiplex amplification of four tetrameric STR loci. Int J Legal Med 1066(106):302–311. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01224776
KN B, M K (2012) Additional Y-STRs in forensics: why, which, and when. Forensic Sci Rev 24:63–78
Kwok P-Y (2003) Methods for genotyping single nucleotide polymorphisms. Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet 2:235–258. https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV.GENOM.2.1.235
L L, L W, QC F, YL Z, XL C, XD K, YM H, WF W, ZS Z (2012) A study on paternity testing with 96 autosomal SNPs. Zhonghua Yi Xue Yi Chuan Xue Za Zhi 29:28–33. https://doi.org/10.3760/CMA.J.ISSN.1003-9406.2012.01.008
Laber TL, Giese SA, Iverson JT, Liberty JA (1994) Validation studies on the forensic analysis of restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) on LE agarose gels without ethidium bromide: effects of contaminants, sunlight, and the electrophoresis of varying quantities of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). J Forensic Sci 39:13649J
Lander ES, Linton LM, Birren B, Nusbaum C, Zody MC, Baldwin J, Devon K, Dewar K, Doyle M, Fitzhugh W, Funke R, Gage D, Harris K, Heaford A, Howland J, Kann L, Lehoczky J, Levine R, McEwan P, McKernan K, Meldrim J, Mesirov JP, Miranda C, Morris W, Naylor J, Raymond C, Rosetti M, Santos R, Sheridan A, Sougnez C, Stange-Thomann N, Stojanovic N, Subramanian A, Wyman D, Rogers J, Sulston J, Ainscough R, Beck S, Bentley D, Burton J, Clee C, Carter N, Coulson A, Deadman R, Deloukas P, Dunham A, Dunham I, Durbin R, French L, Grafham D, Gregory S, Hubbard T, Humphray S, Hunt A, Jones M, Lloyd C, McMurray A, Matthews L, Mercer S, Milne S, Mullikin JC, Mungall A, Plumb R, Ross M, Shownkeen R, Sims S, Waterston RH, Wilson RK, Hillier LW, McPherson JD, Marra MA, Mardis ER, Fulton LA, Chinwalla AT, Pepin KH, Gish WR, Chissoe SL, Wendl MC, Delehaunty KD, Miner TL, Delehaunty A, Kramer JB, Cook LL, Fulton RS, Johnson DL, Minx PJ, Clifton SW, Hawkins T, Branscomb E, Predki P, Richardson P, Wenning S, Slezak T, Doggett N, Cheng JF, Olsen A, Lucas S, Elkin C, Uberbacher E, Frazier M, Gibbs RA, Muzny DM, Scherer SE, Bouck JB, Sodergren EJ, Worley KC, Rives CM, Gorrell JH, Metzker ML, Naylor SL, Kucherlapati RS, Nelson DL, Weinstock GM, Sakaki Y, Fujiyama A, Hattori M, Yada T, Toyoda A, Itoh T, Kawagoe C, Watanabe H, Totoki Y, Taylor T, Weissenbach J, Heilig R, Saurin W, Artiguenave F, Brottier P, Bruls T, Pelletier E, Robert C, Wincker P, Rosenthal A, Platzer M, Nyakatura G, Taudien S, Rump A, Smith DR, Doucette-Stamm L, Rubenfield M, Weinstock K, Hong ML, Dubois J, Yang H, Yu J, Wang J, Huang G, Gu J, Hood L, Rowen L, Madan A, Qin S, Davis RW, Federspiel NA, Abola AP, Proctor MJ, Roe BA, Chen F, Pan H, Ramser J, Lehrach H, Reinhardt R, McCombie WR, De La Bastide M, Dedhia N, Blöcker H, Hornischer K, Nordsiek G, Agarwala R, Aravind L, Bailey JA, Bateman A, Batzoglou S, Birney E, Bork P, Brown DG, Burge CB, Cerutti L, Chen HC, Church D, Clamp M, Copley RR, Doerks T, Eddy SR, Eichler EE, Furey TS, Galagan J, Gilbert JGR, Harmon C, Hayashizaki Y, Haussler D, Hermjakob H, Hokamp K, Jang W, Johnson LS, Jones TA, Kasif S, Kaspryzk A, Kennedy S, Kent WJ, Kitts P, Koonin EV, Korf I, Kulp D, Lancet D, Lowe TM, McLysaght A, Mikkelsen T, Moran JV, Mulder N, Pollara VJ, Ponting CP, Schuler G, Schultz J, Slater G, Smit AFA, Stupka E, Szustakowki J, Thierry-Mieg D, Thierry-Mieg J, Wagner L, Wallis J, Wheeler R, Williams A, Wolf YI, Wolfe KH, Yang SP, Yeh RF, Collins F, Guyer MS, Peterson J, Felsenfeld A, Wetterstrand KA, Myers RM, Schmutz J, Dickson M, Grimwood J, Cox DR, Olson MV, Kaul R, Raymond C, Shimizu N, Kawasaki K, Minoshima S, Evans GA, Athanasiou M, Schultz R, Patrinos A, Morgan MJ (2001) Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome. Nat 4096822(409):860–921. https://doi.org/10.1038/35057062
Li L, Lin Y, Liu Y, Zhu R, Zhao Z, Que T (2015) A case of false mother included with 46 autosomal STR markers. Investig Genet 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/S13323-015-0026-Y
Lin J, Musunuru K (2018) From genotype to phenotype. Circ Genomic Precis Med 11:1946. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCGEN.117.001946
Liu Y-S, Chen J-G, Mei T, Guo Y-X, Meng H-T, Li J-F, Wei Y-Y, Jin X-Y, Zhu B-F, Zhang L-P (2017) Genetic variation and forensic characteristic analysis of 25 STRs of a novel fluorescence co-amplification system in Chinese southern Shaanxi Han population. Oncotarget 8:55443. https://doi.org/10.18632/ONCOTARGET.19317
Liu F, Jia F, Sun F, Zhao B, Shen H (2020a) Validation of a multiplex amplification system of 19 autosomal STRs and 27 Y-STRs. Forensic Sci Res 5:292. https://doi.org/10.1080/20961790.2019.1665158
Liu F, Jia F, Sun F, Zhao B, Shen H (2020b) Validation of a multiplex amplification system of 19 autosomal STRs and 27 Y-STRs. Forensic Sci Res 5:292. https://doi.org/10.1080/20961790.2019.1665158
Loreille O, Ratnayake S, Bazinet AL, Stockwell TB, Sommer DD, Rohland N, Mallick S, Johnson PLF, Skoglund P, Onorato AJ, Bergman NH, Reich D, Irwin JA (2018) Biological sexing of a 4000-year-old egyptian mummy head to assess the potential of nuclear DNA recovery from the most damaged and limited forensic specimens. Genes 9:135. https://doi.org/10.3390/GENES9030135
MA B, E O, JS H-H (2015) Repetitive DNA in eukaryotic genomes. Chromosom Res 23:415–420. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10577-015-9499-Z
Marth GT, Korf I, Yandell MD, Yeh RT, Gu Z, Zakeri H, Stitziel NO, Hillier L, Kwok P-Y, Gish WR (1999) A general approach to single-nucleotide polymorphism discovery. Nat Genet 234(23):452–456. https://doi.org/10.1038/70570
Marwal A, Sahu AK, Gaur RK (2014) Molecular markers: tool for genetic analysis. Anim Biotechnol Model Discov Transl:289–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-416002-6.00016-X
Moretti TR, Baumstark AL, Defenbaugh DA, Keys KM, Smerick JB, Budowle B (2001) Validation of short tandem repeats (STRs) for forensic usage: performance testing of fluorescent multiplex STR systems and analysis of authentic and simulated forensic samples. J Forensic Sci 46:15018J. https://doi.org/10.1520/JFS15018J
Morganti S, Tarantino P, Ferraro E, D’Amico P, Viale G, Trapani D, Duso BA, Curigliano G (2020) Role of next-generation sequencing technologies in personalized medicine. eHealth Agenda Heal Technol Futur P5:125–154. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27994-3_8
MR W, JA D, D P, J R, B B (1995) Validation of mitochondrial DNA sequencing for forensic casework analysis. Int J Legal Med 108:68–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01369907
Panneerchelvam S, Norazmi MN (2003) Forensic DNA profiling and database. Malays J Med Sci 10:20
Purps J, Geppert M, Nagy M, Roewer L (2015) Validation of a combined autosomal/Y-chromosomal STR approach for analyzing typical biological stains in sexual-assault cases. Forensic Sci Int Genet 19:238–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FSIGEN.2015.08.002
Qin D (2019) Next-generation sequencing and its clinical application. Cancer Biol Med 16(4):10.20892/J.ISSN.2095-3941.2018.0055
R S (2007) X Chromosome markers: past, present and future. Forensic Sci Int Genet 1:93–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FSIGEN.2007.03.003
Rahim NG, Harismendy O, Topol EJ, Frazer KA (2008) Genetic determinants of phenotypic diversity in humans. Genome Biol 9:215. https://doi.org/10.1186/GB-2008-9-4-215
Roewer L (2019) Y Chromosome short tandem repeats in forensics – sexing, profiling, and matching male DNA. WIREs Forensic Sci 1:e1336. https://doi.org/10.1002/wfs2.1336
Sawaya S, Bagshaw A, Buschiazzo E, Kumar P, Chowdhury S, Black MA, Gemmell N (2013) Microsatellite tandem repeats are abundant in human promoters and are associated with regulatory elements. PLoS One 8:e54710. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0054710
Seo SB, Zeng X, King JL, Larue BL, Assidi M, Al-Qahtani MH, Sajantila A, Budowle B (2015) Underlying data for sequencing the mitochondrial genome with the massively parallel sequencing platform ion torrent™ PGM™. BMC Genomics 16. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2164-16-S1-S4
Shiono H (1996) Personal identification using DNA polymorphism the identification of forensic biological materials. Japanese J Leg Med 50:320–330
Shrivastava P, Dash HR, Kumawat RK, Srivastava A, Imam J (2018) STR typing and available kits. DNA Fingerprinting Adv Futur Endeavors:61–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1583-1_4
Sobrino B, Carracedo A (2005) SNP typing in forensic genetics: a review. Methods Mol Biol:297
T W, F L, Y W, C P, C X, D H (2018) A novel multiplex assay of SNP-STR markers for forensic purpose. PLoS One 13. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0200700
Tillmar A, Fagerholm SA, Staaf J, Sjölund P, Ansell R (2021) Getting the conclusive lead with investigative genetic genealogy – a successful case study of a 16 year old double murder in Sweden. Forensic Sci Int Genet 53:102525. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FSIGEN.2021.102525
Tornar A, Garofano L, Vecchio C, Pizzamiglio M, Albonici L, Manzari V (1994) The USE of capillary electrophoresis in forensic DNA. Analysis:390–392. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-78782-9_105
Tu J, Ge Q, Wang S, Wang L, Sun B, Yang Q, Bai Y, Lu Z (2012) Pair-barcode high-throughput sequencing for large-scale multiplexed sample analysis. BMC Genomics 131(13):1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2164-13-43
W D, L C, H L, P Q, F L, J G, Y Z, B W, C L (2017) Developmental validation of the HomyGene19+14Y system. Int J Legal Med 131:605–620. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00414-016-1505-2
Wickenheiser RA (2019) Forensic genealogy, bioethics and the Golden state killer case. Forensic Sci Int Synerg 1:114–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FSISYN.2019.07.003
Wyner N, Barash M, McNevin D (2020) Forensic autosomal short tandem repeats and their potential association with phenotype. Front Genet 0:884. https://doi.org/10.3389/FGENE.2020.00884
Xing J, Watkins WS, Witherspoon DJ, Zhang Y, Guthery SL, Thara R, Mowry BJ, Bulayeva K, Weiss RB, Jorde LB (2009) Fine-scaled human genetic structure revealed by SNP microarrays. Genome Res 19:815–825. https://doi.org/10.1101/GR.085589.108
Zhang Q, Zhou Z, Wang L, Quan C, Liu Q, Tang Z, Liu L, Liu Y, Wang S (2020) Pairwise kinship testing with a combination of STR and SNP loci. Forensic Sci Int Genet 46:102265. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FSIGEN.2020.102265
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this entry
Cite this entry
Chilukuri, R.V.E. (2022). Using Multiple Chromosomal Marker Analysis Tools, for DNA Profiling in Human Identification: New, Evolving and Productive Approach. In: Dash, H.R., Shrivastava, P., Lorente, J.A. (eds) Handbook of DNA Profiling. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9364-2_64-1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9364-2_64-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-15-9364-2
Online ISBN: 978-981-15-9364-2
eBook Packages: Springer Reference Biomedicine and Life SciencesReference Module Biomedical and Life Sciences
Publish with us
Chapter history
-
Latest
Using Multiple Chromosomal Marker Analysis Tools, for DNA Profiling in Human Identification: New, Evolving and Productive Approach- Published:
- 21 May 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9364-2_64-2
-
Original
Using Multiple Chromosomal Marker Analysis Tools, for DNA Profiling in Human Identification: New, Evolving and Productive Approach- Published:
- 03 February 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9364-2_64-1