Behavioral Spillovers in Environmental Behavior

Abstract

Favorable environmental behavior in daily life can make a substantial contribution in tackling current environmental challenges. For understanding and influencing environmental behavior, knowledge on behavioral spillovers is crucial: How does one beneficial act affect subsequent environmental behavior? Recent studies on behavioral spillovers observed two opposing phenomena: Moral consistency describes a gratifying effect where people’s subsequent behavior is improved due to a first favorable action. Moral self-licensing depicts people’s tendency for adverse conduct subsequent to a beneficial initial behavior. Two questions are pertinent: (1) Which environmental behaviors are linked and could be prone to spillover effects? (2) Which economic and psychological factors might moderate whether moral consistency or moral self-licensing is more likely to occur? In a first study, we administer a survey with a representative sample of the Swiss population and investigate correlations among a range of environmental behaviors that extends the scope of previous studies. We identify four clusters of environmental behavior that are strongly connected to each other. A second study employs an online experiment that tests proposed moderators of moral consistency and moral self-licensing effects. We find that none of the examined moderators is capable of triggering moral self-licensing in the realm of environmental behavior. However, our evidence shows that generally more closely related behaviors are more susceptible to behavioral spillovers as compared to distantly related behaviors.

Appendices

Online Appendix

Survey Study 1: Linked Behaviors

In this section, we present the survey questions for study 1 in English. In the study, we used only German and French questionnaires that have been translated for the paper. The participants answered four blocks of questions where each block covers the same ten pro-environmental behaviors. Afterwards, they filled a questionnaire regarding personality, environmental attitudes, preferences, and political views.

English Version (Translated)

How often did you engage in the following behaviors in the past? Choose your answer on a scale from 0 (never) to 6 (always):

• During the last year, I recycled paper.

• During the last year, I conserved water in daily life.

• During the last year, I saved electricity in daily life.

• During the last year, I chose to travel by public transport or by bicycle instead of using the car.

• During the last year, I avoided to use air travel.

• During the last year, I dressed warmly at home on cold days to reduce heating.

• During the last year, I bought seasonal, local, and organic food.

• During the last year, I replaced electrical devices (e.g., the smart phone) only if they were defective.

• During the last year, I did not throw away food.

• During the last year, I recycled aluminum, glass, and PET.

How important are the following behaviors to you personally? Choose your answer on a scale from −4 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree):

• Recycling paper is personally very important to me.

• Conserving water in daily life is personally very important to me.

• Saving electricity in daily life is personally very important to me.

• Choosing to travel by public transport or by bicycle instead of using the car is personally very important to me.

• Avoiding to use air travel is personally very important to me.

• Dressing warmly at home on cold days to reduce heating is personally very important to me.

• Buying seasonal, local, and organic food is personally very important to me.

• Replacing electrical devices (e.g., the smart phone) only if they are defective is personally very important to me.

• Not throwing away food is personally very important to me.

• Recycling aluminum, glass, and PET is personally very important to me.

What do you personally think about the following behaviors? Choose your answer on a scale from −4 (very bad) to 4 (very good):

• For me, recycling paper is….

• For me, conserving water in daily life is….

• For me, saving electricity in daily life is….

• For me, choosing to travel by public transport or by bicycle instead of using the car is….

• For me, avoiding to use air travel is….

• For me, dressing warmly at home on cold days to reduce heating is….

• For me, buying seasonal, local, and organic food is….

• For me, replacing electrical devices (e.g., the smart phone) only if they are defective is….

• For me, not throwing away food is….

• For me, recycling aluminum, glass, and PET is….

How often do you intend to engage in the following behaviors in the future? Choose your answer on a scale from 0 (never) to 6 (always):

• During the next year, I will recycle paper.

• During the next year, I will conserve water in daily life.

• During the next year, I will save electricity in daily life.

• During the next year, I will choose to travel by public transport or by bicycle instead of using the car.

• During the next year, I will avoid to use air travel.

• During the next year, I will dress warmly at home on cold days to reduce heating.

• During the next year, I will buy seasonal, local, and organic food.

• During the next year, I will replace electrical devices (e.g., the smart phone) only if they are defective.

• During the next year, I will not throw away food.

• During the next year, I will recycle aluminum, glass, and PET.

Please answer how the following statements describe you and your personality. Please use a scale from 0 (strongly disagree) to 10 (strongly agree):

• I am the life of the party.

• I sympathize with other’s feelings.

• I get chores done right away.

• I have frequent mood swings.

• I have a vivid imagination.

• I don’t talk a lot.

• I am not interested in other people’s problems.

• I often forget to put things back in their proper place.

• I am relaxed most of the time.

• I am not interested in abstract ideas.

• I talk to a lot of different people at parties.

• I feel others’ emotions.

• I like order.

• I get upset easily.

• I have difficulty understanding abstract ideas.

• I keep in the background.

• I am not really interested in others.

• I make a mess of things.

• I seldom feel blue.

• I do not have a good imagination.

We would like to know your opinion on several environmental topics. Please use a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) to assess to what extent you agree to each statement:

• Humans are severely abusing the environment.

• Despite our special abilities, humans are still subject to the laws of nature.

• The earth is like a spaceship with very limited room and resources.

• The balance of nature is very delicate and easily upset.

• If things continue on their present course, we will soon experience a major ecological catastrophe.

How well do the following statements describe you as a person? Please use a scale from 0 (does not describe me at all) to 10 (describes me perfectly):

• As long as I am not convinced otherwise I always assume that people have only the best intentions.

• I do not understand why people spend their lifetime fighting for a cause that is not directly beneficial for them.

• I make a special effort to help someone who has already helped me in the past.

• If somebody hurts me on purpose, I will try to hurt them back.

The traditional classification of political views uses “left” and “right.” How would you classify your political views? [scale from 0 (left) to 10 (right)]

Survey Experiment Study 2: Moderators of Spillover Effects

In this section, we present the survey questions for study 2 in English. The participants were assigned to one of the eight treatments to induce an initial behavior (options a–h). Afterwards, they reported the target behavior regarding electricity saving and either water conservation (option i) or usage of public transport or bicycle instead of car (option ii). Finally, the participants filled a questionnaire regarding personality, environmental attitudes, preferences, and political views and answered a question to check for diligence.

English Version

Initial Behavior

Option (a) Costliness Moderator: “Costly” Treatment

We would like to thank you for your participation in this study. You will receive a payment of 3 euro at the end of the survey. Of those 3 dollars, 1 dollar will be automatically deducted and donated in your name to the independent nonprofit organization Eurosolar. The main aim of this European institution is the substitution of nuclear and fossil with renewable energy sources. Therefore, they promote various forms of sustainable electricity. Thank you for your contribution!

Once we have finished this study, we will donate the total amount and inform you about it.

How much money do you personally get at the end of this study? [provided choices: “1 dollar,” “2 dollars,” “3 dollars,” and “4 dollars”]

Option (b) Costliness Moderator: “Costless” Treatment

We would like to thank you for your participation in this study. You will receive a payment of 3 dollars at the end of the survey. Moreover, 1 dollar will be additionally donated in your name to the independent nonprofit organization Eurosolar. The main aim of this European institution is the substitution of nuclear and fossil with renewable energy sources. Therefore, they promote various forms of sustainable electricity. Thank you for your contribution!

Once we have finished this study, we will donate the total amount and inform you about it.

How much money do you personally get at the end of this study? [provided choices: “1 dollar,” “2 dollars,” “3 dollars,” and “4 dollars”]

Option (c) Costliness Moderator: Control Treatment

We would like to thank you for your participation in this study. You will receive a payment of 3 dollars at the end of the survey.

How much money do you personally get at the end of this study? [provided choices: “1 dollar,” “2 dollars,” “3 dollars,” and “4 dollars”]

Option (d) Construal Level Moderator: “Temporally Distant” Treatment

Please describe an act which you personally performed in the past to save electricity. Please choose an act either which you performed more than a year ago or which you have been regularly performing for quite some time. Three sentences to describe this act are sufficient.

For example, possible measures to save electricity would be to switch off the light when leaving a room, to forgo using the tumble dryer, or to buy energy-saving devices (e.g., energy-efficient light bulbs).

Option (e) Construal Level Moderator: “Recent” Treatment

Please describe an act which you personally performed lately to save electricity. For this, specifically please choose an act which you performed last week. Three sentences to describe the act are sufficient.

For example, possible measures to save electricity would be to switch off the light when leaving a room, to forgo using the tumble dryer, or to buy energy-saving devices (e.g., energy-efficient light bulbs).

Option (f) Goal Perspective Moderator: “Commitment” Treatment

Please describe one or several acts which you personally perform to save electricity. Three sentences to describe the act(s) are sufficient.

For example, possible measures to save electricity would be to switch off the light when leaving a room, to forgo using the tumble dryer, or to buy energy-saving devices (e.g., energy-efficient light bulbs).

Now, think about the described act(s) and your personal goals concerning electricity saving. Please rate to which degree you feel committed to save electricity in the future [scale from 1 (not at all) to 6 (very much)].

Option (g) Goal Perspective Moderator: “Progress” Treatment

Please describe one or several acts which you personally perform to save electricity. Three sentences to describe the act(s) are sufficient.

For example, possible measures to save electricity would be to switch off the light when leaving a room, to forgo using the tumble dryer, or to buy energy-saving devices (e.g., energy-efficient light bulbs).

Now, think about the described act(s) and your personal goals concerning electricity saving. Based on your considerations, please assess your own progress regarding electricity savings [scale from 1 (very low progress) to 6 (very high progress)].

Option (h) Construal Level and Goal Perspective Moderators: Control Treatment

Please describe the current weather conditions. Three sentences for the description are sufficient.

Target Behavior

Dependent variables regarding save electricity:

• For the sake of the environment, I will save significantly more electricity in daily life during the next year [scale from −4 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree)].

• Saving electricity in daily life is personally very important to me [scale from −4 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree)].

• For me, saving electricity in daily life is… [scale from −4 (very bad) to 4 (very good)].

• During the last year, I saved electricity in daily life [scale from 0 (never) to 6 (always)].

Option (i) Dependent variables regarding conserve water:

• For the sake of the environment, I will conserve significantly more water in daily life during the next year [scale from −4 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree)].

• Conserving water in daily life is personally very important to me [scale from −4 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree)].

• For me, conserving water in daily life is… [scale from −4 (very bad) to 4 (very good)].

• During the last year, I conserved water in daily life [scale from 0 (never) to 6 (always)].

Option (ii) Dependent variables regarding less driving:

• For the sake of the environment, I will significantly more often choose to travel by public transport or by bicycle instead of using the car during the next year [scale from −4 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree)].

• Choosing to travel by public transport or by bicycle instead of using the car is personally very important to me [scale from −4 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree)].

• For me, choosing to travel by public transport or by bicycle instead of using the car is… [scale from −4 (very bad) to 4 (very good)].

• During the last year, I chose to travel by public transport or by bicycle instead of using the car [scale from 0 (never) to 6 (always)].

Questionnaire

Please answer how the following statements describe you and your personality. Please use a scale from 0 (strongly disagree) to 10 (strongly agree):

• I am the life of the party.

• I sympathize with other’s feelings.

• I get chores done right away.

• I have frequent mood swings.

• I have a vivid imagination.

• I don’t talk a lot.

• I am not interested in other people’s problems.

• I often forget to put things back in their proper place.

• I am relaxed most of the time.

• I am not interested in abstract ideas.

• I talk to a lot of different people at parties.

• I feel others’ emotions.

• I like order.

• I get upset easily.

• I have difficulty understanding abstract ideas.

• I keep in the background.

• I am not really interested in others.

• I make a mess of things.

• I seldom feel blue.

• I do not have a good imagination.

We would like to know your opinion on several environmental topics. Please use a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) to assess to what extent you agree to each statement:

• Humans are severely abusing the environment.

• Despite our special abilities, humans are still subject to the laws of nature.

• The earth is like a spaceship with very limited room and resources.

• The balance of nature is very delicate and easily upset.

• If things continue on their present course, we will soon experience a major ecological catastrophe.

How well do the following statements describe you as a person? Please use a scale from 0 (does not describe me at all) to 10 (describes me perfectly):

• As long as I am not convinced otherwise I always assume that people have only the best intentions.

• I do not understand why people spend their lifetime fighting for a cause that is not directly beneficial for them.

• I make a special effort to help someone who has already helped me in the past.

• If somebody hurts me on purpose, I will try to hurt them back.

We would like to know how carefully you read the descriptions in this survey. Please answer this question with “Ship” to show that you have read this text [provided choices: “Bicycle,” “Car,” “Airplane,” and “Ship”].

The traditional classification of political views uses “left” and “right.” How would you classify your political views? [scale from 0 (left) to 10 (right)]

Additional Tables and Figures

See Table 4.

See Fig. 7.

Fig. 7

Cluster dendrogram of environmental domains based on future intentions. The underlying function used for the cluster analysis sorted all FPBs based on homogeneity among them. Increasing height indicates decreasing homogeneity. In other words, the lower the height of a connection, the higher is the correlation between the variables and the center of the cluster

See Tables 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14

Table 5 Overview of the distribution of gender, age, income, and education in the total sample and within each treatment

Table 6 Simple and controlled influence of costliness treatments on electricity saving statements

Table 7 Simple and controlled influence of construal level treatments on electricity saving statement

Table 8 Simple and controlled influence of goal perspective treatments on electricity saving statements

Table 9 Simple and controlled influence of costliness treatments on water conservation statements

Table 10 Simple and controlled influence of construal level treatments on water conservation statements

Table 11 Simple and controlled influence of goal perspective treatments on water conservation statements

Table 12 Simple and controlled influence of costliness treatments on less driving statements

Table 13 Simple and controlled influence of construal level treatments on less driving statements

Table 14 Simple and controlled influence of goal perspective treatments on less driving statements