Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Acute Kidney Injury: Definition and Epidemiology

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Acute Kidney Injury and Regenerative Medicine

  • 851 Accesses

Abstract

Acute kidney injury (AKI) complicates the course and worsens the outcome in a significant number of hospitalized patients. Recent advances in clinical and basic research will aid in providing a more accurate definition of this syndrome and elucidate its pathogenesis, which would allow more accurate epidemiologic studies to be conducted in an effort to gain a better understanding of the impact of this syndrome. AKI rarely has a sole and distinct pathophysiology. Recent evidence, from both basic science and clinical research, is beginning to change our view of AKI as a single-organ failure syndrome to a syndrome in which the kidneys play an active role in the progression of multi-organ dysfunction. The accurate and prompt recognition of AKI and a better understanding of the pathophysiologic mechanisms underlying the various clinical phenotypes are of great importance to the search for effective therapeutic interventions. In this review, we provide the most recent updates in the definition, epidemiology, and pathophysiology of AKI.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 119.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Kidney disease improving global outcomes (KDIGO) clinical practice guideline for acute kidney injury. Section 1: Introduction and Methodology. Chapter 1.1: Introduction. Kidney Int Suppl. 2012;2:13–8.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Chertow GM, Burdick E, Honour M, Bonventre JV, Bates DW. Acute kidney injury, mortality, length of stay, and costs in hospitalized patients. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005;16:3365–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Uchino S, Bellomo R, Goldsmith D, Bates S, Ronco C. An assessment of the RIFLE criteria for acute renal failure in hospitalized patients. Crit Care Med. 2006;34:1913–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Eknoyan G, Agodoa L. On improving outcomes and quality of dialysis care, and more. Am J Kidney Dis. 2002;39:889–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Davies FC, Weldon RP. A contribution to the study of “war nephritis”. Lancet. 1917;190:118–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Bywaters EG, Beall D. Crush injuries with impairment of renal function. Br Med J. 1941;1:427–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  7. Kellum JA, Levin N, Bouman C, Lameire N. Developing a consensus classification system for acute renal failure. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2002;8:509–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Bellomo R, Ronco C, Kellum JA, Mehta RL, Palevsky P. Acute renal failure - definition, outcome measures, animal models, fluid therapy and information technology needs: the second international consensus conference of the acute dialysis quality initiative (ADQI) group. Crit Care. 2004;8:R204–12.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Mehta RL, Kellum JA, Shah SV, Molitoris BA, Ronco C, Warnock DG, et al. Acute Kidney Injury Network Acute Kidney Injury Network: report of an initiative to improve outcomes in acute kidney injury. Crit Care. 2007;11:R31.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  10. Vanmassenhove J, Vanholder R, Nagler E, Van Biesen W. Urinary and serum biomarkers for the diagnosis of acute kidney injury: an in-depth review of the literature. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2013;28:254–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Siew ED, Ware LB, Ikizler TA. Biological markers of acute kidney injury. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2011;22:810–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Katagiri D, Doi K, Matsubara T, Negishi K, Hamasaki Y, Nakamura K, et al. New biomarker panel of plasma neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin and endotoxin activity assay for detecting sepsis in acute kidney injury. J Crit Care. 2013;28:564–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Katagiri D, Doi K, Honda K, Negishi K, Fujita T, Hisagi M, et al. Combination of two urinary biomarkers predicts acute kidney injury after adult cardiac surgery. Ann Thorac Surg. 2012;93:577–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Waikar SS, Betensky RA, Emerson SC, Bonventre JV. Imperfect gold standards for kidney injury biomarker evaluation. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2012;23:13–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  15. Pickering JW, Endre ZH. Back-calculating baseline creatinine with MDRD misclassifies acute kidney injury in the intensive care unit. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2010;5:1165–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  16. Akcan-Arikan A, Zappitelli M, Loftis LL, Washburn KK, Jefferson LS, Goldstein SL. Modified RIFLE criteria in critically ill children with acute kidney injury. Kidney Int. 2007;71:1028–35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Pickering JW, Endre ZH. GFR shot by RIFLE: errors in staging acute kidney injury. Lancet. 2009;373:1318–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Tögel F, Westenfelder C. Recent advances in the understanding of acute kidney injury. F1000Prime Rep. 2014;6:83.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Lameire N, Van Biesen W, Vanholder R. Acute renal failure. Lancet. 2005;365:417–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Rahman M, Shad F, Smith MC. Acute kidney injury: a guide to diagnosis and management. Am Fam Physician. 2012;86:631–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Blantz RC. Pathophysiology of pre-renal azotemia. Kidney Int. 1998;53:512–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Basile DP, Anderson MD, Sutton TA. Pathophysiology of acute kidney injury. Compr Physiol. 2012;2:1303–53.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  23. Hegarty NJ, Young LS, Kirwan CN, O’Neill AJ, Bouchier-Hayes DM, Sweeney P, et al. Nitric oxide in unilateral ureteral obstruction: effect on regional renal blood flow. Kidney Int. 2001;59:1059–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Dager W, Hallilovic J. Acute kidney injury. In: DiPiro JT, Talbert RL, Yee GC, et al., editors. Pharmacotherapy: a pathophysiologic approach. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2011. p. 746.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Hsu CY, McCulloch CE, Fan D, Ordoñez JD, Chertow GM, Go AS. Community-based incidence of acute renal failure. Kidney Int. 2007;72(2):208–12.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Li PK, Burdmann EA, Mehta RL. World kidney day 2013: acute kidney injury-global health alert. Am J Kidney Dis. 2013;61:359–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Lameire NH, Bagga A, Cruz D, De Maeseneer J, Endre Z, Kellum JA, et al. Acute kidney injury: an increasing global concern. Lancet. 2013;382:170–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Prakash J, Singh TB, Ghosh B, Malhotra V, Rathore SS, Vohra R, et al. Changing epidemiology of community-acquired acute kidney injury in developing countries: analysis of 2405 cases in 26 years from eastern India. Clin Kidney J. 2013;6:150–5.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Siew ED, Deger SM. Recent advances in acute kidney injury epidemiology. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 2012;21(3):309–17.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Roberts G, Phillips D, McCarthy R, Bolusani H, Mizen P, Hassan M, et al. Acute kidney injury risk assessment at the hospital front door: what is the best measure of risk? Clin Kidney J. 2015;8(6):673–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Wiedermann CJ, Wiedermann W, Joannidis M. Causal relationship between hypoalbuminemia and acute kidney injury. World J Nephrol. 2017;6(4):176–87.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. Case J, Khan S, Khalid R, Khan A. Epidemiology of acute kidney injury in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Res Pract. 2013;2013:479730.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Uchino S, Kellum JA, Bellomo R, Doig GS, Morimatsu H, Morgera S, et al. Beginning and ending supportive therapy for the kidney (BEST kidney) investigators. Acute renal failure in critically ill patients: a multinational, multicenter study. JAMA. 2005;294:813–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Liaño F, Pascual J. Epidemiology of acute renal failure: a prospective, multicenter, community-based study. Kidney Int. 1996;50:811–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Lameire N, Van Biesen W, Vanholder R. The changing epidemiology of acute renal failure. Nat Clin Pract Nephrol. 2006;2:364–77.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Lameire N, Van Biesen W, Vanholder R. The rise of prevalence and the fall of mortality of patients with acute renal failure: what the analysis of two databases does and does not tell us. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006;17:923–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Wonnacott A, Meran S, Amphlett B, Talabani B, Phillips A. Epidemiology and outcomes in community-acquired versus hospital-acquired AKI. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2014;9:1007–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. Susantitaphong P, Cruz DN, Cerda J, Abulfaraj M, Alqahtani F, Koulouridis I, et al. Acute Kidney Injury Advisory group of the American Society of Nephrology. World incidence of AKI: a meta-analysis. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2013;8(9):1482–93.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. Lafrance JP, Miller DR. Defining acute kidney injury in database studies: the effects of varying the baseline kidney function assessment period and considering CKD status. Am J Kidney Dis. 2010;56(4):651–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Zeng X, McMahon GM, Brunelli SM, Bates DW, Waikar SS. Incidence, outcomes, and comparisons across definitions of AKI in hospitalized individuals. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2014;9(1):12–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Selby NM, Crowley L, Fluck RJ, McIntyre CW, Monaghan J, Lawson N, et al. Use of electronic results reporting to diagnose and monitor AKI in hospitalized patients. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2012;7(4):533–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Uchino S, Bellomo R, Bagshaw SM, Goldsmith D. Transient azotaemia is associated with a high risk of death in hospitalized patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2010;25(6):1833–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Iwagami M, Mansfield K, Quint J, Nitsch D, Tomlinson L. Diagnosis of acute kidney injury and its association with in-hospital mortality in patients with infective exacerbations of bronchiectasis: cohort study from a UK nationwide database. BMC Pulm Med. 2016;16:14.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  44. Thakar CV, Parikh PJ, Liu Y. Acute kidney injury (AKI) and risk of readmissions in patients with heart failure. Am J Cardiol. 2012;109(10):1482–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Caddeo G, Williams ST, McIntyre CW, Selby NM. Acute kidney injury in urology patients: incidence, causes and outcomes. Nephrourol Mon. 2013;5(5):955–61.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. Belcher JM, Garcia-Tsao G, Sanyal AJ, Bhogal H, Lim JK, Ansari N, et al. Association of AKI with mortality and complications in hospitalized patients with cirrhosis. Hepatology. 2013;57(2):753–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Murugan R, Weissfeld L, Yende S, Singbartl K, Angus DC, Kellum JA. Genetic and inflammatory markers of sepsis (GenIMS) investigators. Association of statin use with risk and outcome of acute kidney injury in community-acquired pneumonia. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2012;7(6):895–905.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Holmes J, Rainer T, Geen J, Roberts G, May K, Wilson N, et al. Welsh AKI Steering Group. Acute kidney injury in the era of the AKI E-alert. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2016;11(12):2123–31.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. Sutherland SM, Ji J, Sheikhi FH, Widen E, Tian L, Alexander SR, et al. AKI in hospitalized children: epidemiology and clinical associations in a national cohort. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2013;8(10):1661–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Cerdá J, Lameire N, Eggers P, Pannu N, Uchino S, Wang H, et al. Epidemiology of acute kidney injury. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2008;3:881–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Coca SG. Acute kidney injury in elderly persons. Am J Kidney Dis. 2010;56:122–31.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  52. Chronopoulos A, Cruz DN, Ronco C. Hospital-acquired acute kidney injury in the elderly. Nat Rev Nephrol. 2010;6:141–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Ricci Z, Cruz D, Ronco C. The RIFLE criteria and mortality in acute kidney injury: a systematic review. Kidney Int. 2008;73:538–46.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Bagshaw SM, Laupland KB, Doig CJ, Mortis G, Fick GH, Mucenski M, et al. Prognosis for long-term survival and renal recovery in critically ill patients with severe acute renal failure: a population-based study. Crit Care. 2005;9:R700–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  55. Metnitz PG, Krenn CG, Steltzer H, Lang T, Ploder J, Lenz K, et al. Effect of acute renal failure requiring renal replacement therapy on outcome in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 2002;30:2051–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Swaminathan M, Stafford-Smith M. Changing terminology in renal research: the impact of consensus. Am J Kidney Dis. 2012;59:584–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Srisawat N, Sileanu FE, Murugan R, Bellomod R, Calzavacca P, Cartin-Ceba R, et al. Variation in risk and mortality of acute kidney injury in critically ill patients: a multicenter study. Am J Nephrol. 2015;41(1):81–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Hoste EA, Bagshaw SM, Bellomo R, Cely CM, Colman R, Cruz DN, et al. Epidemiology of acute kidney injury in critically ill patients: the multinational AKI-EPI study. Intensive Care Med. 2015;41(8):1411–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Kolhe NV, Muirhead AW, Wilkes SR, Fluck RJ, Taal MW. The epidemiology of hospitalised acute kidney injury not requiring dialysis in England from 1998 to 2013: retrospective analysis of hospital episode statistics. Int J Clin Pract. 2016;70(4):330–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Waikar SS, Curhan GC, Wald R, McCarthy EP, Chertow GM. Declining mortality in patients with acute renal failure, 1988 to 2002. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006;17(4):1143–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Xue JL, Daniels F, Star RA, Kimmel PL, Eggers PW, Molitoris BA, et al. Incidence and mortality of acute renal failure in Medicare beneficiaries, 1992 to 2001. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006;17(4):1135–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Kolhe NV, Muirhead AW, Wilkes SR, Fluck RJ, Taal MW. National trends in acute kidney injury requiring dialysis in England between 1998 and 2013. Kidney Int. 2015;88(5):1161–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Wald R, McArthur E, Adhikari NK, Bagshaw SM, Burns KE, Garg AX, et al. Changing incidence and outcomes following dialysis-requiring acute kidney injury among critically ill adults: a population-based cohort study. Am J Kidney Dis. 2015;65(6):870–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Ostermann ME, Taube D, Morgan CJ, Evans TW. Acute renal failure following cardiopulmonary bypass: a changing picture. Intensive Care Med. 2000;26(5):565–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Sileanu FE, Murugan R, Lucko N, Clermont G, Kane-Gill SL, Handler SM, et al. AKI in low-risk versus high-risk patients in intensive care. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2015;10(2):187–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Ympa YP, Sakr Y, Reinhart K, Vincent JL. Has mortality from acute renal failure decreased? A systematic review of the literature. Am J Med. 2005;118(8):827–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Bagshaw SM, Darmon M, Ostermann M, Finkelstein FO, Wald R, Tolwani AJ, et al. Current state of the art for renal replacement therapy in critically ill patients with acute kidney injury. Intensive Care Med. 2017;43(6):841–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Schneider AG, Bellomo R, Bagshaw SM, Glassford NJ, Lo S, Jun M, et al. Choice of renal replacement therapy modality and dialysis dependence after acute kidney injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med. 2013;39(6):987–97.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Gaudry S, Hajage D, Schortgen F, Martin-Lefevre L, Pons B, Boulet E, et al. Initiation strategies for renal-replacement therapy in the intensive care unit. N Engl J Med. 2016;375(2):122–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Singer M, Deutschman CS, Seymour CW, Shankar-Hari M, Annane D, Bauer M, et al. The third international consensus definitions for sepsis and septic shock (SEPSIS-3). JAMA. 2016;315(8):801–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  71. Lopes JA, Jorge S, Resina C, Santos C, Pereira A, Neves J, et al. Acute kidney injury in patients with sepsis: a contemporary analysis. Int J Infect Dis. 2009;13(2):176–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Bagshaw SM, Lapinsky S, Dial S, Arabi Y, Dodek P, Wood G, et al. Acute kidney injury in septic shock: clinical outcomes and impact of duration of hypotension prior to initiation of antimicrobial therapy. Intensive Care Med. 2009;35(5):871–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Lai TS, Wang CY, Pan SC, Huang TM, Lin MC, Lai CF, et al. Risk of developing severe sepsis after acute kidney injury: a population-based cohort study. Crit Care. 2013;17(5):R231.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  74. Mehta RL, Bouchard J, Soroko SB, Ikizler TA, Paganini EP, Chertow GM, et al. Sepsis as a cause and consequence of acute kidney injury: program to improve care in acute renal disease. Intensive Care Med. 2011;37(2):241–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Bagshaw SM, Uchino S, Bellomo R, Morimatsu H, Morgera S, Schetz M, et al. Septic acute kidney injury in critically ill patients: clinical characteristics and outcomes. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2007;2:431–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Hoste EA, Lameire NH, Vanholder RC, Benoit DD, Decruyenaere JM, Colardyn FA. Acute renal failure in patients with sepsis in a surgical ICU: predictive factors, incidence, comorbidity, and outcome. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2003;14:1022–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Oppert M, Engel C, Brunkhorst FM, Bogatsch H, Reinhart K, Frei U, et al. Acute renal failure in patients with severe sepsis and septic shock—a significant independent risk factor for mortality: results from the German prevalence study. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2008;23:904–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Rodrigo E, Suberviola B, Santibáñez M, Belmar L, Castellanos Á, Heras M, et al. Association between recurrence of acute kidney injury and mortality in intensive care unit patients with severe sepsis. J Intensive Care. 2017;5:28.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  79. Kellum JA, Chawla LS, Keener C, Singbartl K, Palevsky PM, Pike FL, et al. The effects of alternative resuscitation strategies on acute kidney injury in patients with septic shock. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2016;193:281–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  80. Chertow GM, Lazarus JM, Christiansen CL, Cook EF, Hammermeister KE, Grover F, et al. Preoperative renal risk stratification. Circulation. 1997;95:878–84.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Hu J, Chen R, Liu S, Yu X, Zou J, Ding X. Global incidence and outcomes of adult patients with acute kidney injury after cardiac surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2016;30:82–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Vandenberghe W, Gevaert S, Kellum JA, Bagshaw SM, Peperstraete H, Herck I, et al. Acute kidney injury in cardiorenal syndrome type 1 patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Cardiorenal Med. 2016;6:116–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Lagny MG, Jouret F, Koch JN, Blaffart F, Donneau AF, Albert A, et al. Incidence and outcomes of acute kidney injury after cardiac surgery using either criteria of the RIFLE classification. BMC Nephrol. 2015;16:76.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  84. Dasta JF, Kane-Gill SL, Durtschi AJ, Pathak DS, Kellum JA. Costs and outcomes of acute kidney injury (AKI) following cardiac surgery. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2008;23:1970–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Hobson CE, Yavas S, Segal MS, Schold JD, Tribble CG, Layon AJ, et al. Acute kidney injury is associated with increased long-term mortality after cardiothoracic surgery. Circulation. 2009;119:2444–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Lafrance JP, Miller DR. Acute kidney injury associates with increased long-term mortality. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2010;21:345–52.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  87. Najjar M, Salna M, George I. Acute kidney injury after aortic valve replacement: incidence, risk factors and outcomes. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther. 2015;13:301–16.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Brown JR, Kramer RS, Coca SG, Parikh CR. Duration of acute kidney injury impacts long-term survival after cardiac surgery. Ann Thorac Surg. 2010;90:1142–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Swaminathan M, Hudson CC, Phillips-Bute BG, Patel UD, Mathew JP, Newman MF, et al. Impact of early renal recovery on survival after cardiac surgery-associated acute kidney injury. Ann Thorac Surg. 2010;89:1098–104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Hansen MK, Gammelager H, Jacobsen CJ, Hjortdal VE, Layton JB, Rasmussen BS, et al. Acute kidney injury and long-term risk of cardiovascular events after cardiac surgery: a population-based cohort study. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2015;29:617–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Coca SG, Singanamala S, Parikh CR. Chronic kidney disease after acute kidney injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Kidney Int. 2012;81:442–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Nash K, Hafeez A, Hou S. Hospital-acquired renal insufficiency. Am J Kidney Dis. 2002;39:930–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Bartholomew BA, Harjai KJ, Dukkipati S, Boura JA, Yerkey MW, Glazier S, et al. Impact of nephropathy after percutaneous coronary intervention and a method for risk stratification. Am J Cardiol. 2004;93:1515–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. James MT, Samuel SM, Manning MA, Tonelli M, Ghali WA, Faris P, et al. Contrast-induced acute kidney injury and risk of adverse clinical outcomes after coronary angiography: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Circ Cardiovasc Interv. 2013;6:37–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Mehta RL, Mehta RL, Burdmann EA, Cerdá J, Feehally J, Finkelstein F, García-García G, et al. Recognition and management of acute kidney injury in the International Society of Nephrology 0by25 global snapshot: a multinational cross-sectional study. Lancet. 2016;387:2017–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Mehta RL, Cerdá J, Burdmann EA, Tonelli M, García-García G, Jha V, et al. International Society of Nephrology’s 0by25 initiative for acute kidney injury (zero preventable deaths by 2025): a human rights case for nephrology. Lancet. 2015;385:2616–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Chawla LS, Eggers PW, Star RA, Kimmel PL. Acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease as interconnected syndromes. N Engl J Med. 2014;371:58–66.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Arias-Cabrales C, Rodríguez E, Bermejo S, Sierra A, Burballa C, Barrios C, Soler MJ, Pascual J. Short- and long-term outcomes after non-severe acute kidney injury. Clin Exp Nephrol. 2018;22(1):61–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Chawla LS, Amdur RL, Shaw AD, Faselis C, Palant CE, Kimmel PL. Association between AKI and long-term renal and cardiovascular outcomes in United States veterans. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2014;9(3):448–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Dépret F, Prud'homme M, Legrand M. A role of remote organs effect in acute kidney injury outcome. Nephron. 2017;137(4):273–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Wu PC, Wu CJ, Lin CJ, Wu VC, National Taiwan University Study Group on Acute Renal Failure Group. Long-term risk of upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage after advanced AKI. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2015;10(3):353–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgment

Competing Interests: None declared

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Nephrology, Kochi Medical School, Kochi University, Nankoku, Japan

    Taro Horino

Authors
  1. Taro Horino
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Taro Horino .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Nephrology, Kochi Medical School, Kochi University, Nankoku, Kochi, Japan

    Yoshio Terada

  2. Department of Nephrology and Laboratory Medicine, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Ishikawa, Japan

    Takashi Wada

  3. Department of Acute Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan

    Kent Doi

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Horino, T. (2020). Acute Kidney Injury: Definition and Epidemiology. In: Terada, Y., Wada, T., Doi, K. (eds) Acute Kidney Injury and Regenerative Medicine . Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1108-0_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1108-0_1

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore

  • Print ISBN: 978-981-15-1107-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-981-15-1108-0

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation