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Japanese, International Migrants, and Cholera in the Yokohama Treaty Port, 1859–1899

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Life in Treaty Port China and Japan

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Abstract

The chapter is a case study on epidemic disease, everyday life, and Western Empire in nineteenth century Asia. The impact of cholera on the everyday in the Yokohama Treaty Port is examined. Four epidemics are addressed: 1862, 1877, 1879, and 1886. As major threats to public health, the four cholera outbreaks exacerbated and contested the already problematised nexus of daily life in the quasi-colonial setting. Conflicted relations between Japanese and the encroaching treaty powers and competition among the powers themselves presented the context in which the local population engaged cholera. The disease was met within a framework of pronounced particularistic divisions—economic, political, and racial. Cholera, at one and the same time, reinforced community norms and generated striking changes in thinking and behaviour.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    F. G. Notehelfer, ed., Japan Through American Eyes: The Journal of Francis Hall, Kanagawa and Yokohama, 1858–1866 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), p. 545.

  2. 2.

    Angela McShane and Garthine Walker, eds., The Extraordinary and the Everyday in Early Modern England: Essays in Celebration of the Work of Bernard Capp (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), pp. 1, 4.

  3. 3.

    In 2009, Bettina Gramlich-Oka noted that the literature, in languages other than Japanese, on cholera epidemics in Japan was “limited” (see: in this note, below, Gramlich-Oka, 33). Recent studies—in English—which address or focus on cholera in nineteenth-century Japan include William Johnston, “Buddhism Contra Cholera: How the Meiji State Recruited Religion against Epidemic Disease,” in Science, Technology, and Medicine in the Modern Japanese Empire, eds. David Wittner and Philip Brown (London: Routledge, 2016), pp. 62–78; Roberto Padilla, “When Precision Obscures: Disease Categories Related to Cholera during the Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895),” in Wittner and Brown, Science, pp. 164–174; Hoi-Eun Kim, Doctors of Empire: Medical and Cultural Encounters between Imperial Germany and Meiji Japan (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014); William Johnston, “The Shifting Epistemological Foundations of Cholera Control in Japan (1822–1900),” Extrême-Orient, Extrême-Occident 37 (2014): pp. 171–196; Jeong-Ran Kim, “The Borderline of ‘Empire’: Japanese Maritime Quarantine in Busan c. 1876–1910,” Medical History 57 (2013): pp. 226–248; William Johnston, “Epidemics Past and Science Present: An Approach to Cholera in Nineteenth-Century Japan,” Harvard Asia Quarterly 14 (2012): pp. 28–35; Nakamura Miri, “Monstrous Language: The Translation of Hygienic Discourse in Izumi Kyōka’s The Holy Man of Mount Koya,” in Translation in Modern Japan, ed. Indra Levy (London: Routledge, 2011), pp. 165–185; Bettina Gramlich-Oka, “The Body Economic: Japan’s Cholera Epidemic of 1858 in Popular Discourse,” EASM 30 (2009): pp. 32–73; Roberto Ramon Padilla II, “Science, Nurses, Physicians and Disease: The Role of Medicine in the Construction of a Modern Japanese Identity, 1868–1912,” PhD dissertation, Ohio State University, 2009; Suzuki Akihito and Suzuki Mika, “Cholera, Consumer and Citizenship: Modernisations of Medicine in Japan,” in The Development of Modern Medicine in Non-Western Countries: Historical Perspectives, ed. Hormoz Ebrahimnejad (London: Routledge, 2009), pp. 184–203.

  4. 4.

    Harald Fuess , “Informal Imperialism and the 1879 Hesperia Incident: Containing Cholera and Challenging Extraterritoriality in Japan,” Japan Review 27 (2014): pp. 103–140.

  5. 5.

    Ichikawa Tomoo, 「近代日本の開港場における伝染病流行と外国人居留地―1879年『神奈川県地方衛生会』によるコレラ対策―」 [Infectious Diseases and Foreign Settlements in the Japanese Treaty Ports: The 1879 Cholera Epidemic at Yokohama] Shigaku-Zasshi 117 (June 2008): pp. 1–38.

  6. 6.

    Tsukada Kei and Tsuchimoto Toshikazu,「明治12年の戸別衛生検査―明治前期横浜における便所の改善に関する研究―」 [Sanitary Survey by House-to-House Visitation in 1879: A Study of Lavatories Improvement of Yokohama in the Early Meiji Era] 『日本建築学会計画系論文集』, Journal of Architectural Planning 582 (August 2004): pp. 209–216.

  7. 7.

    Otaki Toshio,「神奈川のコレラ」 [Cholera Epidemics in Kanagawa] 『日本醫史學雑誌』 38 (January 1992): pp. 5–24.

  8. 8.

    A. Hamish Ion, “Sexual Imperialism on the China Station during the Meiji Restoration: The Control of Smallpox and Syphilis at Yokohama, 1868–1871,” The International History Review 31 (December 2009): pp. 711–739; Todd Munson, “Imperialism and Infomedia in Bakumatsu Japan: The View from Treaty Port Yokohama,” PhD dissertation, Indiana University, 2004.

  9. 9.

    See, for example, Emily Rosenberg, ed., A World Connecting, 1870–1945 (Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2012), pp. 4–5.

  10. 10.

    Frederick Cooper, Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), p. 30.

  11. 11.

    Ryan Johnson and Amna Khalid, Public Health in the British Empire: Intermediaries, Subordinates, and the Practice of Public Health, 1850–1960 (New York: Routledge, 2012), p. 12.

  12. 12.

    Irish University Press Area Studies Series, British Parliamentary Papers, Japan, Embassy and Consular Commercial Reports, vol. 9, 1892–96 (Shannon: Irish University Press, 1971), p. 429.

  13. 13.

    Charles Rosenberg , The Cholera Years: The United States in 1832, 1849, 1866 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), pp. 1–4.

  14. 14.

    Ellen Gardner Nakamura, Practical Pursuits: Takano Chōei, Takahashi Keisaku, and Western Medicine in Nineteenth-Century Japan (Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center, 2005), p. 150.

  15. 15.

    For a valuable introduction to treaty ports in Japan, see: J. E. Hoare , Japan’s Treaty Ports and Foreign Settlements: The Uninvited Guests, 1858–1899 (Sandgate: Japan Library, 1994).

  16. 16.

    Kato Yuzo, ed., Yokohama: Past and Present (Yokohama: Yokohama City University, 1990), p. 72.

  17. 17.

    Hugh Cortazzi, ed., Mitford’s Japan: The Memoirs and Recollections, 1866–1906, of Algernon Bertram Mitford, the first Lord Redesdale (London: Athlone Press, 1985), p. 31.

  18. 18.

    See, for example: Pär Kristoffer Cassel, Grounds of Judgement: Extraterritoriality and Imperial Power in Nineteenth-Century China and Japan (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012).

  19. 19.

    San Francisco Call, July 17, 1899, 2.

  20. 20.

    Alcock to Russell, August 16, 1861, in Hora Tomio, British Parliamentary Papers Relating to Japan, Addenda, vol. 1 (n.p.: Yushodo, 1973), p. 294.

  21. 21.

    Jack Hammersmith, Spoilsmen in a “Flowery Fairyland”: The Development of the U.S. Legation in Japan, 1859–1906 (Kent: Kent State University Press, 1998), p. 219.

  22. 22.

    JWM, August 11, 1883, 357.

  23. 23.

    See, for example: Irish University Press, p. 429.

  24. 24.

    JWM, November 19, 1870, 552.

  25. 25.

    Eliza Scidmore, Jinrikisha Days in Japan (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1899), p. 20.

  26. 26.

    DCK, No. 13, Fisher to Seward, September 16, 1862, roll 1.

  27. 27.

    Straits Times Overland Journal, October 8, 1881, 8.

  28. 28.

    DCK, No. 84, Green to Porter, May 13, 1886, enclosure no. 2, April 17, 1886, Walsh, Hall Co., to Warren Green, roll 15.

  29. 29.

    Clarence Ludlow Brownell, The Heart of Japan: Glimpses of Life and Nature Far from the Travellers’ Track in the Land of the Rising Sun (London: Methuen, n.d.), p. 77.

  30. 30.

    Japan Times’ Overland Mail, April 18, 1868, 106.

  31. 31.

    JWM, August 10, 1872, 493.

  32. 32.

    Notehelfer, Japan, p. 447.

  33. 33.

    Hugh Cortazzi, Dr Willis in Japan: British Medical Pioneer (London: Athlone, 1985), p. 59.

  34. 34.

    Japan Herald, October 25, 1862, 195.

  35. 35.

    D. B. Simmons , “Cholera Epidemics in Japan, with a Monograph on the Influence of the Habits and Customs of Races on the Prevalence of Cholera,” China Imperial Maritime Customs Medical Reports, special series, no. 2, 18th issue, Shanghai, Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General, 1880, p. 4.

  36. 36.

    New York Times , January 12, 1863, 2.

  37. 37.

    John Black, Young Japan: Yokohama and Yedo, 1858–79 (Tokyo: Oxford University Press, 1968), p. 147.

  38. 38.

    Margaret Powell and Anesaki Masahira, Health Care in Japan (London: Routledge, 1990), p. 58.

  39. 39.

    The Japanese population in Yokohama in 1862 is not known. In autumn 1863, the local Japanese population was estimated to be 18,000–20,000. Terry Bennett, Japan and “The Illustrated London News”: Complete Record of Reported Events, 1853–1899 (Folkstone: Global Oriental, 2006), p. 110.

  40. 40.

    Stuart Eldridge , “Report of Transactions at Yokohama, Japan,” Annual Report of the Supervising Surgeon-General of the Marine-Hospital Service for the United States , Fiscal Year 1899, Washington, Government Printing Office, 1901, p. 557.

  41. 41.

    RLJ, No. 122 [?], Wakisaka [?] to Pruyn, July 28, 1862, roll 7.

  42. 42.

    Winchester to Neale, August 23, 1862, in Hora, British Parliamentary Papers, vol. 2, p. 636.

  43. 43.

    British Medical Journal, January 25, 1902, p. 241.

  44. 44.

    JWM, March 15, 1884, 259; DMJ, No. 164, Hubbard to the Secretary of State, May 24, 1886, roll 54.

  45. 45.

    Stuart Eldridge , “Notes on the Diseases Affecting European Residents in Japan, upon the Basis of All Available Statistics,” China Imperial Maritime Customs Medical Reports, special series, no. 2, 15th issue, Shanghai, Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General, 1878, p. 55.

  46. 46.

    Japan Herald, October 25, 1862, 195.

  47. 47.

    Willis Norton Whitney, “Notes on the History of Medical Progress in Japan,” Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan 12 (1885): p. 337. Also see, however: Powell and Anesaki, Health Care, p. 23.

  48. 48.

    Ibid.

  49. 49.

    Simmons , “Cholera Epidemics,” p. 20.

  50. 50.

    JWM, August 7, 1880, 1022.

  51. 51.

    Nakamura, Practical Pursuits, pp. 9–10.

  52. 52.

    Japan Directory, vol. 1 (Tokyo: Yumani Shoboh, 1996), p. 51.

  53. 53.

    David Shavit, The United States in Asia: A Historical Dictionary (New York: Greenwood Press, 1990), p. 232.

  54. 54.

    Keir Waddington, An Introduction to the Social History of Medicine: Europe since 1500 (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), pp. 155–156.

  55. 55.

    Notehelfer, Japan, p. 150.

  56. 56.

    Ibid., p. 321.

  57. 57.

    Kobayashi Noriyoshi, “American Missionaries in Yokohama,” Historical English Studies in Japan 18 (1986): p. 37.

  58. 58.

    RLJ, No. 122 [?], Wakisaka [?] to Pruyn.

  59. 59.

    Ibid., No. 97, Legation at Yedo to Fisher, July 30, 1862, Copies of Miscellaneous Letters Sent, March 28, 1857–April 1, 1863, roll 94.

  60. 60.

    DCK, No. 19, Fisher to Seward, October 1, 1862, roll 1.

  61. 61.

    Simmons , “Cholera Epidemics,” p. 20.

  62. 62.

    Black, Young Japan, p. 147.

  63. 63.

    Simmons , “Cholera Epidemics,” p. 4.

  64. 64.

    Ibid.

  65. 65.

    Ibid., p. 22.

  66. 66.

    JWM, September 15, 1877, 802.

  67. 67.

    Report of the Director of the Central Sanitary Bureau to His Excellency the Minister of the Home Department on Choleraic Diseases in Japan, 1877, pp. 7–8.

  68. 68.

    JWM, September 22, 1877, 817.

  69. 69.

    Edward Morse , “Health-Matters in Japan,” Popular Science Monthly 12 (November 1877–April 1878): p. 285.

  70. 70.

    YDN, September 19, 1877, 59.

  71. 71.

    Ibid., September 21, 1877, 65.

  72. 72.

    JWM, November 17, 1877, 1031.

  73. 73.

    Hall [?] to The Under Secretary for Foreign Affairs [?], December 26, 1877, Foreign Office, British Foreign Office: Japan Correspondence, F. O. 46, vol. 225, reel 130, pp. 462–463.

  74. 74.

    Report of the Director of the Central Sanitary Bureau, 1877, p. 20.

  75. 75.

    Ibid., pp. 8–9.

  76. 76.

    Ibid., p. 10.

  77. 77.

    Stewart Eldridge, “History of the Establishment and Growth of the Quarantine System in Japan,” Annual Report of the Supervising Surgeon-General of the Marine-Hospital Service for the United States, Fiscal Year 1896, Washington, Government Printing Office, 1896, p. 450.

  78. 78.

    Fuess , “Informal Imperialism,” p. 123.

  79. 79.

    JWM, September 29, 1877, 844; C. A. Gordon, An Epitome of the Reports of the Medical Officers to the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs Service, 1871–1882 (London: Baillière, Tindall, and Cox, 1884), p. 136.

  80. 80.

    JWM, September 22, 1877, 817.

  81. 81.

    Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 99 (July–December 1878): p. 196.

  82. 82.

    Ibid., pp. 196, 643.

  83. 83.

    JWM, October 13, 1877, 896.

  84. 84.

    Report of the Director of the Central Sanitary Bureau, 1877, p. 21.

  85. 85.

    NCH, October 25, 1877, 372.

  86. 86.

    JWM, October 13, 1877, 894.

  87. 87.

    Ibid., September 15, 1877, 802.

  88. 88.

    Toku Baelz, ed., Awakening Japan: The Diary of a German Doctor Erwin Baelz (New York: Viking Press, 1932), p. 33.

  89. 89.

    Ibid., p. 34.

  90. 90.

    NCH, October 11, 1877, 322.

  91. 91.

    Ibid.

  92. 92.

    YDN, September 19, 1877, 58.

  93. 93.

    JWM, September 29, 1877, 849.

  94. 94.

    YDN, October 3, 1877, 107.

  95. 95.

    Report of the Director of the Central Sanitary Bureau, 1877, pp. 13–14.

  96. 96.

    Foreign Office, British Foreign Office, Hall [?] to the Under Secretary for Foreign Affairs, December 26, 1877, p. 463.

  97. 97.

    JWM, November 15, 1879, 1529.

  98. 98.

    Ibid., August 22 [23], 1879, 1110.

  99. 99.

    Ibid., August 23, 1879, 1108.

  100. 100.

    Ibid., 1108–1109.

  101. 101.

    Ibid., 1109.

  102. 102.

    Report of the Director of the Central Sanitary Bureau to His Excellency, the Minister of the Home Department, upon Cholera in Japan, 1879, pp. 2, 4, 6.

  103. 103.

    Ibid., pp. 6, 8.

  104. 104.

    Ibid., p. 5.

  105. 105.

    Sanitary and Statistical Report of the Surgeon-General of the Navy for the Year 1879, Washington, Government Printing Office, 1881, p. 7; Gordon, An Epitome, p. 137.

  106. 106.

    JWM, September 20, 1879, 1246–1247.

  107. 107.

    Ibid., September 27, 1879, 1280.

  108. 108.

    Feuss, “Informal Imperialism,” p. 124.

  109. 109.

    New York Times , August 4, 1879, 4.

  110. 110.

    Sydney Morning Herald, October 27, 1879, 5.

  111. 111.

    No. 1059, Bingham to Evarts, January 21, 1880, in Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States Transmitted to Congress, with the Annual Message of the President, December 6, 1880, vol. 38 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1880), pp. 679–680.

  112. 112.

    JWM, September 20, 1879, 1246–1247.

  113. 113.

    Ibid., September 27, 1879, 1279.

  114. 114.

    Ibid., August 30, 1879, 1144.

  115. 115.

    Ibid., October 6, 1877, 868.

  116. 116.

    Luke Gartlan, “Samuel Cocking and the Rise of Japanese Photography,” History of Photography, 33 (May 2009): p. 148; also see: JWM, April 9, 1887, 333.

  117. 117.

    Simmons , “Cholera Epidemics,” p. 21.

  118. 118.

    NCH, June 10, 1877, 575.

  119. 119.

    JWM, August 23, 1879, 1109.

  120. 120.

    Ibid., August 30, 1879, 1144.

  121. 121.

    NCH, October 11, 1877, 322.

  122. 122.

    Fuess , “Informal Imperialism,” p. 120.

  123. 123.

    JWM, October 11, 1879, 1353.

  124. 124.

    Ibid., August 23, 1879, 1109.

  125. 125.

    Ibid.

  126. 126.

    Ibid., August 30, 1879, 1145.

  127. 127.

    Ibid., August 23, 1879, 1109.

  128. 128.

    Ibid., September 6, 1879, 1180.

  129. 129.

    Ibid., November 15, 1879, 1527.

  130. 130.

    Ibid., 1529.

  131. 131.

    Ibid., September 6, 1879, 1179.

  132. 132.

    Ibid., 1180.

  133. 133.

    Ibid., September 27, 1879, 1280.

  134. 134.

    Ibid.

  135. 135.

    Ibid., September 13, 1879, 1211–1212.

  136. 136.

    DMJ, No. 201, Hubbard to Bayard, July 20, 1886, roll 55.

  137. 137.

    JWM, November 14, 1903, 523; Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 24 (New York: Henry Allen, 1890) p. 745.

  138. 138.

    JWM, August 21, 1886, 189.

  139. 139.

    DMJ, No. 163, Hubbard to Bayard, May 20, 1886, roll 54.

  140. 140.

    A Brief Review of the Operations of the Home Department in Connection with the Cholera Epidemic of the 19th Year of Meiji, 1886, p. 66.

  141. 141.

    Ibid., 46.

  142. 142.

    JWM, December 18, 1886, 602.

  143. 143.

    Ibid.

  144. 144.

    Ibid.

  145. 145.

    Ibid.

  146. 146.

    Ibid., October 4, 1879, 1314.

  147. 147.

    Christopher Hamlin, Cholera: The Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 4–5.

Abbreviations

DCK:

Department of State, Despatches from US Consuls in Kanagawa, 1861–1897, File Microcopies No. 135.

DMJ:

Department of State, Despatches from US Ministers to Japan, 6 January 1886–9 July 1886, File Microcopies No. 133.

JWM :

Japan Weekly Mail.

NCH :

North-China Herald and Supreme Court and Consular Gazette.

RLJ:

Department of State, Records of the United States Legation in Japan, 1855–1912, Notes from the Japanese Foreign Office, 1 July–31 December 1862, Microcopy No. T-400.

YDN :

『横浜毎日新聞』Yokohama Daily News.

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  1. Department of Sociology, Toyo University, Tokyo, Japan

    Chester J. Proshan

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  1. National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore

    Donna Brunero

  2. The University of Hull, Kingston upon Hull, United Kingdom

    Stephanie Villalta Puig

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Proshan, C.J. (2018). Japanese, International Migrants, and Cholera in the Yokohama Treaty Port, 1859–1899. In: Brunero, D., Villalta Puig, S. (eds) Life in Treaty Port China and Japan. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7368-7_6

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