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Free Movement of Athletes in the Sports Industry

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Employment and Labour Relations Law in the Premier League, NBA and International Rugby Union

Part of the book series: ASSER International Sports Law Series ((ASSER))

Abstract

An enduring concern of a professional club, league or federation is the free movement of players and the effect that this can have for the quality of a competition and wage levels. This chapter describes the legal elements of the right of free movement under Article 45 TFEU and the right to provide services and establish in another Member State under Articles 49 and 56 TFEU respectively. Athletes have used these provisions to challenge working conditions that restrict their capacity to earn a living in another Member State. Professional sport is not excluded from the application of European law. Provided an athlete falls within the definition of worker—as that term is defined under European law—he or she has a right of free movement. The unique characteristics of the sports industry are taken into account when determining whether a measure that infringes free movement is justified under European law.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    European Communities Act 1972, ss 2(1) and 3(1).

  2. 2.

    Following the outcome of a national referendum in June 2016, the negotiation of the United Kingdom’s withdrawal from the European Union will determine the extent to which the right of free movement and other employment protections apply to workers in the United Kingdom in the future. Until the terms of withdrawal are confirmed, European law will continue to apply.

  3. 3.

    Barnard 2012, p. 5.

  4. 4.

    Bercusson 2006, p. 9.

  5. 5.

    See the Treaty of the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU), Title IX Employment and Title X Social Policy. A copy of the consolidated versions of the Treaty on the European Union and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union signed on 13 December 2007 is available at [2012] OJ C 326/1.

  6. 6.

    Article 147 TFEU.

  7. 7.

    See the following examples: Council Directive 2000/78/EC of 27 November 2000 establishing a general framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation, Council Directive 2010/18/EU of 8 March 2010 implementing the revised framework agreement on parental leave, Council Directive 89/391/EEC of 12 June 1989 on the introduction of measures to encourage improvements in the safety and health of workers at work, Council Directive 2001/23/EC of 21 March 2001 relating to the safeguarding of employees’ rights in the event of transfers of undertakings, businesses or parts of undertakings or businesses, Council Directive 98/59/EC of 20 July 1998 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States Relating to Collective Redundancies and Council Directive 2002/14/EC of 11 March 2002 establishing a general framework for informing and consulting employees.

  8. 8.

    The open method of coordination is a process of policy-making which is used in the employment area. It involves the European Union establishing guidelines and fixing goals or specific targets for each Member State to achieve in the employment sphere, taking into account national differences. A Member State’s performance is benchmarked against other Member States and a Member State is encouraged to exchange best practices.

  9. 9.

    See Sect. 6.3, infra.

  10. 10.

    For an overview of European labour law, see Barnard 2012. For European Union law generally see Conway 2016 and Craig and de Búrca 2015.

  11. 11.

    C-415/93 Union Royale Belge des Sociétés de Football Association v Bosman [1995] 1 CMLR 645, para 74.

  12. 12.

    Case 175/78 Regina v Saunders [1980] QB 72, para 11. Note the development of the concept of EU citizenship and its effect on free movement.

  13. 13.

    Article 45(4) TFEU.

  14. 14.

    See Sect. 4.2.1.1, supra.

  15. 15.

    The European Union has a special relationship with some African, Caribbean and Pacific Island countries which provides, inter alia, for equal treatment of nationals from those countries employed in a Member State: see Partnership Agreement ACP-EC signed in Cotonou on 23 June 2000, revised in Luxembourg on 25 June 2005 (EC De-132 September 2006). See also Case C-438/00 Deutscher Handballbund eV v Kolpak [2003] ECR I-4135 explained further in Sect. 5.2.3, infra.

  16. 16.

    Article 18 TFEU and Directive 2004/38, Article 24(1).

  17. 17.

    Case C-281/98 Angonese v Cassa di Risparmio di Bolzano SpA [2000] 2 CMLR 1120, paras 31–36.

  18. 18.

    Bosman, supra n 11.

  19. 19.

    Angonese, supra n 17.

  20. 20.

    Case C-237/94 John O’Flynn v Adjudication Officer [1996] ECR I-2617.

  21. 21.

    Bosman, supra n 11, para 96.

  22. 22.

    Case C-19/92 Kraus v Land Baden-Wurttemberg [1993] ECR I-1663, para 32.

  23. 23.

    Angonese, supra n 17, para 42.

  24. 24.

    See generally Mortelmans 2001.

  25. 25.

    European Commission, White Paper on Sport COM (2007) 391 final Brussels 11.7.2007, pp. 13–14.

  26. 26.

    Case 13/76 Donà v Mantero [1976] 2 CMLR 578; Case 36/74 Walrave and Koch v Association Union Cycliste Internationale [1975] 1 CMLR 320; Bosman n 11; and C-519/04P Meca-Medina and Majcen v Commission of the European Communities [2006] 5 CMLR 18. See also Van den Bogaert 2013.

  27. 27.

    See the comments of Advocate General Sharpston in C-325/08 Olympique Lyonnais v Bernard and Newcastle United FC [2010] 3 CMLR 14, para 30. See also the European Commission definition of specificity of sport in the White Paper, supra n 25, pp. 13–14. See also Weatherill 2006, Cygan 2007, Szyszczak 2007, Weatherill 2010 and O’Leary 2012.

  28. 28.

    Bosman, supra n 11.

  29. 29.

    Bosman, supra n 11, para 96.

  30. 30.

    Bosman, supra n 11, para 103.

  31. 31.

    Bosman, supra n 11, para 104.

  32. 32.

    Ibid.

  33. 33.

    Bosman, supra n 11, para 106.

  34. 34.

    Bosman, supra n 11, para 107.

  35. 35.

    Bosman, supra n 11, para 109.

  36. 36.

    Ibid.

  37. 37.

    Bosman, supra n 11, para 110 (CJEU) and para 226 (AG Opinion).

  38. 38.

    Bosman, supra n 11, para 112.

  39. 39.

    Bosman, supra n 11, para 113.

  40. 40.

    Bosman, supra n 11, para 121.

  41. 41.

    Bosman, supra n 11, paras 123–126.

  42. 42.

    Bosman, supra n 11, paras 131–132.

  43. 43.

    Bosman, supra n 11, para 133.

  44. 44.

    Bosman, supra n 11, para 134.

  45. 45.

    Bosman, supra n 11, para 135.

  46. 46.

    Bosman, supra n 11, para 136.

  47. 47.

    Bosman, supra n 11, para 137.

  48. 48.

    See Pearson 2015 and Davies 2014. The issue is the subject of a competition law complaint filed by FIFPRO—the collective representative of professional football players at an international level—with the European Commission, which challenges the legality under European competition law of FIFA’s international transfer regulations: FIFPRO Press Release (18 September 2015) FIFPRO Legal Action Against FIFA Transfer System, available on line at www.fifpro.org.

  49. 49.

    See Szymanski 2010, Chap. 2.

  50. 50.

    For an economic perspective of the effects of the decision See Antonioni and Cubbin 2000, Fiores et al. 2010 and Binde and Findlay 2012. See generally McCutcheon 2000 and Parrish and McArdle 2004.

  51. 51.

    Case C-438/00 Deutscher Hanbullbund eV v Kolpak [2004] 2 CMLR 38.

  52. 52.

    Ibid., para 49. Applied in Case C-265/03 Simutenkov v Ministerio de Educacion y Cultura and Anor [2005] ECR I-2579.

  53. 53.

    C-325/08 [2010] 3 CMLR 14.

  54. 54.

    Ibid., paras 35–36.

  55. 55.

    Oympique Lyonnais, supra n 53, para 43.

  56. 56.

    See the White Paper on Sport, COM (2007) 391 final, para 4.3, European Parliament Resolution of 8 May 2008 on the White Paper on Sport, para 34 and Article 165 TFEU.

  57. 57.

    Olympique Lyonnais, supra n 53, paras 46–48.

  58. 58.

    Olympique Lyonnais, supra n 53, para 50.

  59. 59.

    Olympique Lyonnais, supra n 53, para 49. See also Pijetlovic 2010, Weatherill 2010 and Van den Bogaert 2013.

  60. 60.

    See Sect. 8.5.4, infra.

  61. 61.

    Case 36/74 [1975] 1 CMLR 320.

  62. 62.

    C 176/96 [2000] 3 CMLR 409.

  63. 63.

    Ibid., para 49.

  64. 64.

    Lehtonen, supra n 62, para 60.

  65. 65.

    Directive 2006/123/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2006 on services in the internal market [2006] OJ L 376/36 (the Services Directive).

  66. 66.

    Professional Qualifications Directive 2005/36/EC and Directive 2013/55/EC.

  67. 67.

    C-55/94 [1996] 1 CMLR 603.

  68. 68.

    Ibid., para 25.

  69. 69.

    Gebhard supra n 67, para 26.

  70. 70.

    Gebhard, supra n 67, para 27.

  71. 71.

    Ibid.

  72. 72.

    See Sect. 5.2.1, supra.

  73. 73.

    Article 52 TFEU and the Services Directive, Articles 16 and 17.

  74. 74.

    Gebhard, supra n 67, para 36.

  75. 75.

    Case 36/74 [1975] 1 CMLR 320.

  76. 76.

    Ibid., paras 4–5.

  77. 77.

    Walrave, supra n 75, para 8.

  78. 78.

    Case 13/76 [1976] 2 CMLR 578.

  79. 79.

    Ibid., para 13.

  80. 80.

    Donà, supra n 78, para 10.

  81. 81.

    C-415/93 Union Royale Belge des Sociétés de Football Association v Bosman [1995] 1 CMLR 645, para 76. See also Weatherill 2007.

  82. 82.

    C 51/96 and C-191/97 [2000] ECR I-2549.

  83. 83.

    Ibid., para 46.

  84. 84.

    Deliège, supra n 82, para 56.

  85. 85.

    Deliège, supra n 82, para 57.

  86. 86.

    Deliège, supra n 82, para 61.

  87. 87.

    Deliège, supra n 82, para 62.

  88. 88.

    White Paper, supra n 25, pp. 13–14.

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  1. Faculty of Law and Criminology, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, Lancashire, UK

    Leanne O’Leary

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O’Leary, L. (2017). Free Movement of Athletes in the Sports Industry. In: Employment and Labour Relations Law in the Premier League, NBA and International Rugby Union. ASSER International Sports Law Series. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-159-3_5

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