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Addressing Irregular Immigration Through Criminal Penalties: Reflections on the Contribution of the ECJ to Refining and Developing a Complex Balance

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International Courts and the Development of International Law

Abstract

The significant increase in migration in recent decades has raised concerns regarding the management and control of flows, particularly those of irregular migrants. In this context, the debate about the use of criminal sanctions as a tool of repression to limit the phenomenon is assuming increasing importance. The theme fits in with an international context that is changing the approach to the treatment of foreigners in an attempt to find a balance between fundamental rights and the state’s prerogatives. In 2011 the EU Court of Justice ruled repeatedly on these profiles: without questioning the competence of Member States to apply criminal sanctions against irregular migrants, the ECJ nevertheless reminded them of their obligations under EU law and in relation to the protection of fundamental rights, forcing the Italian legislature to amend the regulations in force and more broadly orienting the international debate on a profile of crucial importance.

Sections 1, 3, 4, 7 have been written by Bruno Nascimbene and Sects. 2, 5, 7 by Alessia Di Pascale

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Treaty of Amsterdam amending the Treaty of the European Union, the Treaties establishing the European Communities and certain related acts (Amsterdam, 2 October 1997), entered into force on 1 May 1999.

  2. 2.

    With regard to the immigration policy of the European Union, see, among the many contributions, De Bruycker and Urbano de Sousa 2004; Nascimbene 2009; Favilli 2010; Kaddous and Dony 2010; Adinolfi 2011.

  3. 3.

    On the most recent changes to Italian immigration legislation and in particular on the use of criminal tools, see Renoldi 2009; Caputo 2009; Masera 2009.

  4. 4.

    See Fernandez et al. 2009; Di Pascale, forthcoming.

  5. 5.

    On these aspects see in particular Viganò 2010.

  6. 6.

    Preamble to the International Rules on the Admission and Expulsion of Aliens, adopted by the Institute of International Law on 9 September 1892.

  7. 7.

    Among the many decisions, see especially ECtHR: Abdulaziz, Cabales and Balkandali v. United Kingdom, 9214/80-9473/81-9474/81, Judgment (28 May 1985).

  8. 8.

    For a recent analysis see Nascimbene 2013; see previously Villani 1987; Tiburcio 2001; Bogusz 2004; Weissbrodt 2008; Chetail 2007; Benvenuti 2008; Nascimbene and Di Pascale 2010; Aleinikoff and Chetail 2003; Pisillo Mazzeschi et al. 2010; Flauss 2011.

  9. 9.

    Prevention of discrimination. The rights of noncitizens, drafted by the Special Rapporteur Weissbrodt, appointed by the Commission for Human Rights of the UN Subcommittee for the promotion and protection of human rights, who concluded his work in 2003, UN Doc. E/CN. 4/Sub. 2/2003/23 (26 May 2003).

  10. 10.

    Directive 2008/115/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on common standards and procedures in Member States for returning illegally staying third-country nationals, OJ L 348 of 24 December 2008, p. 98.

  11. 11.

    ECJ: Hassen El Dridi, alias Soufi Karim, C-61/11 PPU, Judgment (28 April 2011); see also the position of Advocate General Mazák. See the comments in Guida al diritto, 2011, 25, p. 9 ff.; Amalfitano 2011; Favilli 2011; Giliberto 2011; Viganò and Masera 2012; Raffaelli 2011; Liguori (2011) ECJ: Alexandre Achughbabian v. Préfet du Val-de-Marne, C-329/11, Judgment (6 December 2011).

  12. 12.

    As renamed and amended by the Treaty of Lisbon amending the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty establishing the European Community (Lisbon, 13 December 2007), entered into force on 1st December 2009.

  13. 13.

    For a detailed analysis of the measures adopted by the EU in the field of irregular migration see Merlino and Parkin 2011. See also Di Pascale et al. 2011; Nascimbene and Di Pascale 2011.

  14. 14.

    For a commentary on the Directive see Maiani 2008/2009; Baldaccini 2009.

  15. 15.

    See El Dridi, supra n. 11, para 61.

  16. 16.

    ECJ: Said Shamilovich Kadzoev (Huchbarov), C-375/09 PPU, Judgment (30 November 2009).

  17. 17.

    In these terms, see among others, ECJ: Criminal proceedings against Silvio Berlusconi, Sergio Adelchi and Marcello Dell'Utri and Others, Joined Cases C-387/02, C-391/02 and C-403/02, Judgment (3 May 2005), paras 67–69; Jager v. Amt fur Landwirtschaft Butzow, C-420/06, Judgment (11 March 2008), para 59.

  18. 18.

    On this procedure see: Condinanzi and Mastroianni 2009; Tizzano and Gencarelli 2009.

  19. 19.

    See El Dridi, supra n. 11, para 33.

  20. 20.

    ECtHR: Saadi v. United Kingdom [GC], 13229/03, Judgment (28 January 2008). For some remarks on the subject, the limits of deprivation of liberty and the conditions or standards to be met, see Nascimbene 2011.

  21. 21.

    For a commentary see Raffaelli 2012.

  22. 22.

    See in particular paras 37 and 39.

  23. 23.

    Paras 46 and 48.

  24. 24.

    See El Dridi, supra n. 11, para 58.

  25. 25.

    On erga omnes effectiveness and, in particular, the obligations of the State following a judgment on an “order for reference from which it is apparent that the legislation is incompatible with Community law”, the national authorities having “to take the general or particular measures necessary to ensure that Community law is complied with in their territory”, see ECJ: Office national des pensions v. Emilienne Jonkman and Hélène Vercheval and Noëlle Permesaen v. Office national des pensions, Joined Cases C-231 to C-233/06, Judgment (21 June 2007), paras 36–41 (with reference to the case law).

  26. 26.

    With the Law Decree no. 89 of 23 June 2011, converted with amendments by the Law no. 129 of 2 August 2011, the Consolidated Act was amended to transpose Directive 2008/115/EC, in light of the statements upheld by the EU Court of Justice.

  27. 27.

    The first appointment occurred in 1999; the mandate has been extended and renewed over the years and in June 2011, during the 17th session of the UN Human Rights Council, the new Special Rapporteur, Mr. François Crépeau, was appointed to remain in office until 2014. See Morrone 2005.

  28. 28.

    Report of the Special Rapporteur on the human rights of migrants, Mr. Jorge Bustamante, of 3 August 2010, A/65/222.

  29. 29.

    Statement by Mr. François Crépeau, Special Rapporteur on the Human Rights of Migrants to the 66th session of the General Assembly, Third Committee—Item 69 (b), (c), 21 October 2011, para 3. www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=11523&LangID=E. Accessed 10 June 2012.

  30. 30.

    Commissioner for Human Rights, It is wrong to criminalize migration, Viewpoint (29 September 2008). www.commissioner.coe.int. Accessed 10 June 2012.

  31. 31.

    Criminalisation of Migration in Europe: Human Rights Implications, Issue Paper commissioned and published by Thomas Hammarberg, Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights, 2010, CommDH/IssuePaper(2010)1. https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=1579605&Site=CommDH&BackColorInternet=FEC65B&BackColorIntranet=FEC65B&BackColorLogged=FFC679. Accessed 10 June 2012. See in the past the views of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention (WGAD), that already in 1998 noted that “criminalizing irregular entry into a country exceeds the legitimate interest of a State to Regulate and control irregular immigration, and can lead to unnecessary detention”, Report of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1999/63 (18 December 1998).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Professor of European Union Law, University of Milan, Milan, Italy

    Bruno Nascimbene

  2. Researcher in European Union Law, University of Milan, Milan, Italy

    Alessia Di Pascale

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  1. Bruno Nascimbene
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  2. Alessia Di Pascale
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Correspondence to Bruno Nascimbene .

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. , Dipartimento di diritto pubblico, University of Milan - Statale University, Via Festa del Perdono 7, Milan, 20122, Italy

    Nerina Boschiero

  2. Bicocca University, Dipartimento giuridico, University of Milan, Piazza dell’Ateneo Nuovo 1, Milan, 20126, Italy

    Tullio Scovazzi

  3. , Dipartimento di Diritto,, University of Parma, Via Università 12, Parma, 43121, Italy

    Cesare Pitea

  4. , Dipartimento di diritto pubblico, University of Milan - Statale University, Via Festa del Perdono 7, Milan, 20122, Italy

    Chiara Ragni

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Nascimbene, B., Di Pascale, A. (2013). Addressing Irregular Immigration Through Criminal Penalties: Reflections on the Contribution of the ECJ to Refining and Developing a Complex Balance. In: Boschiero, N., Scovazzi, T., Pitea, C., Ragni, C. (eds) International Courts and the Development of International Law. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague, The Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-6704-894-1_63

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