Abstract
Cities are increasingly garnering attention on the global political stage, in light of the challenges and opportunities urbanization engenders for transition along sustainability and resilience pathways. Recently adopted as a target for change within sustainable development agendas, and recognized as central socioeconomic vehicles by which to mobilize related initiatives, the significance of urban systems to transition becomes most evident if we conceptualize them as being integrated within broader systems of settlements. Settlements are complex adaptive socio-ecological systems, which together as globalized networks embody the complete range of human-environment interactions and the complexity that has emerged along with these, over time. This framing is inspired by science of cities research and the dwelling perspective, both of which have elaborated on cities/settlements’ (1) coupled social-ecological-technological phenomena, (2) fundamental nature and function, (3) embodiment of scale-/network-based processes, and (4) emergent, multi-scale patterns of organization and impact. Ultimately, this could inform a relational approach to both sustainability and settlement planning, guided by analyses of these factors. It could also complement the burgeoning inclination in science and design disciplines to deconstruct the reflexive interactions that can occur between processes and forms, meaning and matter, people and places, the ephemeral and the concrete, the normative and the positive. By this means, we begin to invert our systemic design problem space, turning attention away from our constructed worlds, instead contemplating the ways of life they enable, in an integration between research and practice, observation and intervention, analyses and innovation, scholarship and poetics.
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Notes
- 1.
Sustainability: This term was sanctified in the Brundtland Commission’s report, Our Common Future, wherein sustainable development has been defined as that which “meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Brundtland, <CitationRef CitationID="CR34" >1987</Citation Ref>). Or as Gibson (<CitationRef CitationID="CR79" >2016</Citation Ref>) has summarized, more recently, “We can begin by treating sustainability as current language for lasting wellbeing and exploring what pursuing lasting wellbeing entails” (p. 3).
- 2.
Resilience: “The capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to still retain essentially the same function, structure and feedbacks, and therefore identity…” (Folke et al., <CitationRef CitationID="CR74" >2010</Citation Ref>, p. 20).
- 3.
Transition: “A transition is a radical, structural change of a societal (sub)system that is the result of a coevolution of economic, cultural, technological, ecological, and institutional developments at different scale levels” (Rotmans & Loorbach, <CitationRef CitationID="CR174" >2009</Citation Ref>, p. 185).
- 4.
Socio-ecological Systems: “The evolving world system can be considered a socio-ecological system, comprised of environmental and human subsystems and their interactions. The environmental subsystem, in turn, is composed of ecosystems, biophysical processes and other aspects of the natural world. The economic system includes capital, labor, other inputs, and the production processes in which they are used. The social subsystem includes consumption patterns, demographics, and culture” (Gallopín & Raskin, <CitationRef CitationID="CR76" >2002</Citation Ref>, p. 5–6).
- 5.
Adjacent Possible: “The adjacent possible is a kind of shadow future, hovering on the edges of the present state of things, a map of all the ways in which the present can reinvent itself” (Johnson, <CitationRef CitationID="CR231" >2010</Citation Ref>, p. 31).
- 6.
The first saw the rise of ancient civilizations around 10,000 B.C.; the second began around 1800 A.D., coinciding with the industrial revolution; and the third began in 2010, at which point 50% of global populations were living in urban regions (Angel, <CitationRef CitationID="CR5" >2012</Citation Ref>).
- 7.
Goal 11, Sustainable Cities and Communities: “Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable” (United Nations, <CitationRef CitationID="CR205" >2015b</Citation Ref>, p. 14).
- 8.
Extended Peer Communities “[consist] not merely of persons with some form or other of institutional accreditation [such as scientists, industry or government], but rather of all those with a desire to participate in the resolution of the issue” (Funtowicz & Ravetz, <CitationRef CitationID="CR228" >2003</Citation Ref>, p. 7).
- 9.
Post-Normal Science decision-making conditions combine high uncertainty with high stakes, sit at the intersection of policy and science, require evaluation of both fact and value statements, and are often embedded within complex scenarios (Funtowicz & Ravetz, <CitationRef CitationID="CR228" >2003</Citation Ref>; Ravetz, <CitationRef CitationID="CR164" >2007</Citation Ref>).
- 10.
Critical Transitions occur when a system shifts from one state (i.e. basin of attraction) to another (also referred to as crossing a threshold) and without prospect of returning easily to its previous state (Scheffer, <CitationRef CitationID="CR183" >2009</Citation Ref>; Walker & Salt, <CitationRef CitationID="CR210" >2006</Citation Ref>).
- 11.
In urbanized, globalized contexts, we have even redefined the meaning of a nomadic lifestyle. Today, we can live a life on the road, supported by transnational banking, international transit, digital communication, and otherwise.
- 12.
“Ekistics denotes both a specific settlement orientation and at the same time a wide field of interest, encompassing all those processes which have served to form settlements throughout history” (Bell & Tyrwhitt, <CitationRef CitationID="CR19" >1972</Citation Ref>, p. 28).
- 13.
Five Principles of Settlement: (1) maximization of man’s potential contacts with the elements of nature, with people, and with the works of man; (2) minimization of the effort required for the achievement of man’s actual and potential contacts; (3) optimization of man’s protective space, which means the selection of such a distance from other persons, animals, or objects that he can keep his contacts with them without any kind of sensory or psychological discomfort; (4) optimization of the quality of man’s relationship with his environment, which consists of nature, society, shells, and networks; and (5) optimization of the four other principles, dependent on time and space, actual conditions, and man’s ability to create a synthesis (Doxiadis, <CitationRef CitationID="CR61" >1970</Citation Ref>, pp. 2–3).
- 14.
Systems of Cities: “What we call systems of cities are evolutionary objects that may include subsets of cities connected by long-distance networks or cities belonging to unified political territories…The precise identification of systems of cities is very difficult, due to the changing nature of the interactions that need to be considered, and the fluctuations in their spatial extension” (Bretagnolle et al., <CitationRef CitationID="CR30" >2009</Citation Ref>, p. 200).
- 15.
Global Cities: This concept refers to a type of function, situated within complex cities, involving the production of advanced intermediary services (i.e. finance, legal, trade, etc.), that facilitate cross-border exchanges and globalized activities (Sassen, 2012).
- 16.
Design Space: The total set of prospective designs that could be rendered (Beinhocker, <CitationRef CitationID="CR002" >2011</Citation Ref>).
- 17.
Ideal Type: In this method of analysis, a model exemplar of a given social or cultural phenomenon is identified, against which other instances can be compared and connected. Sociologist and political economist Max Weber analysed cities in this way, wherein he illustrated how those arising within very different times and places could be related through their shared characteristics, as opposed to generalized laws (Portugali, <CitationRef CitationID="CR156" >2000</Citation Ref>).
- 18.
Form is the physical embodiment of a system’s pattern of organization; matter is the material structure of a system; the process of life is the activity involved in the continual embodiment of the system’s pattern of organization; meaning is the inner world of reflective consciousness (derived from Capra & Luisi, <CitationRef CitationID="CR39" >2014</Citation Ref>, pp. 303–304).
- 19.
Emergy “...is the available energy of one kind previously used up directly and indirectly to make a product or service” (Odum, <CitationRef CitationID="CR149" >2007</Citation Ref>, p. 89).
- 20.
Third Industrial Revolution: This current regime shift represents the implications of information technology on production, operational management, and distribution (Rifkin, <CitationRef CitationID="CR170" >2011</Citation Ref>).
- 21.
Personal communication with William Rees, Canadian Society for Ecological Economics Conference, October 4, 2015, Vancouver.
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Acknowledgements
The author is grateful for the support of the Waterloo Institute for Complexity and Innovation (WICI), to attend the 2016 Global Sustainability Summer School (GSSS) in Urban Sustainability at the Santa Fe Institute (SFI). She would also like to acknowledge the Institute without Boundaries (IwB), in Toronto, wherein much of this thinking originated.
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Ruttonsha, P. (2018). Towards a (Socio-ecological) Science of Settlement: Relational Dynamics as a Basis for Place. In: Jones, P., Kijima, K. (eds) Systemic Design. Translational Systems Sciences, vol 8. Springer, Tokyo. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-55639-8_7
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