Abstract
Prevention is the most important measure that can be taken to avoid osteoporosis, because bone mass, once it is lost, cannot be recovered. Both men and women reach their maximum bone mass when they are in their 20s and 30s; bone mass is maintained or may even increase slightly as people reach their 40s, and gradually decreases thereafter. In particular, bone mass dramatically decreases in postmenopausal women because of a decrease in serum estrogen level. Bone mass is influenced by genetic and environmental factors such as mechanical loading, nutrition, and lifestyle, along with gender, age, and metabolic factors. Among these factors, mechanical loading, i.e. exercise, and nutrition seem to be important in maintaining bone health, and lifestyle choices, including following a regular exercise program and consuming a diet rich in minerals and vitamins, when maintained throughout life, can be expected to preserve bone health. In contrast, excessive exercise with energy restriction induces osteoporosis in female athletes. This section will discuss the importance of appropriate exercise and diet on bone health in women, and some insights gained from studies using a rat model.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Aoe S, Toba Y, Yamamura J, Kawakami H, Yahiro M, Kumegawa M, Itabashi A, Takada Y (2001) Controlled trial of the effects of milk basic protein (MBP) supplementation on bone metabolism in healthy adult women. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 65:913–918
Caston AL, Farrell PA, Deaver DR (1995) Exercise training-induced changes in anterior pituitary gonadotrope of the female rat. J Appl Physiol 79:194–201
Chatterton RT Jr, Hartman AL, Lynn DE, Hickson RC (1990) Exercise-induced ovarian dysfunction in the rat. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 193:220–224
Cifuentes M, Advis JP, Shapses SA (2004) Estrogen prevents the reduction in fractional calcium absorption due to energy restriction in mature rats. J Nutr 134:1929–1934
Colman RJ, Beasley TM, Allison DB, Weindruch R. (2011) Skeletal effects of long-term caloric restriction in rhesus monkeys. Age (Dordr) 34:1133–1143
Conference Report (2004) Consensus development conference: prophylaxis and treatment of osteoporosis. Available online 14 June 2004
Dimarco NM, Dart L, Sanborn CB (2007) Modified activity-stress paradigm in an animal model of the female athlete triad. J Appl Physiol 103:1469–1478
Hawkins J, Cifuentes M, Pleshko NL, Ambia-Sobhan H, Shapses SA (2010) Energy restriction is associated with lower bone mineral density of the tibia and femur in lean but not obese female rats. J Nutr 140:31–37
Ishimi Y, Yanaka K (2012) The role of exercise and diet in maintaining bone health. J Phys Fit Sports Med 1:579–583
Ishimi Y, Miyaura C, Ohmura M, Onoe Y, Sato T, Uchiyama Y, Ito M, Wang X, Suda T, Ikegami S (1999) Selective effects of genistein, a soybean isoflavone, on B-lymphopoiesis and bone loss caused by estrogen deficiency. Endocrinology 140(4):1893–1900
Kanis JA, Melton LJ 3rd, Christiansen C, Johnston CC, Khaltaev N (1994) The diagnosis of osteoporosis. J Bone Miner Res 9:1137–1141
Kuiper G, Lemmen G, Carlsson B, Corton C, Safe H, Saag T, Burg B, Gustafsson A (1998) Interaction of estrogenic chemicals and phytoestrogens with estrogen receptor β. Endocrinology 139:4252–4263
Lambrinoudaki I, Papadimitriou D (2010) Pathophysiology of bone loss in the female athlete. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1205:45–50
Loucks AB (1994) Dietary restriction reduces luteinizing hormone (LH) pulse frequency during waking hours and increases LH pulse amplitude during sleep in young menstruating women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 78:910–915
Loucks AB (2006) The response of luteinizing hormone pulsatility to 5 days of low energy availability disappears by 14 years of gynecological age. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:3158–3164
Loucks AB, Thuma JR (2003) Luteinizing hormone pulsatility is disrupted at a threshold of energy availability in regularly menstruating women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:297–311
Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan (2013) Exercise and physical activity guide for health promotion 2013 (in Japanese). Available from: http://www0.nih.go.jp/eiken/info/pdf/sintai2013.pdf
Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare in Japan (2014) Dietary reference intakes for Japanese (2015): Available from http://www.mhlw.go.jp/stf/shingi/0000041824.html
Moayyeri A (2008) The association between physical activity and osteoporotic fractures: a review of the evidence and implications for future research. Ann Epidemiol 18:827–835
Nattiv A, Agostini R, Drinkwater B, Yeager KK (1994) The female athlete triad. The inter-relatedness of disordered eating, amenorrhea, and osteoporosis. Clin Sports Med 13:405–418
Orimo H (2011) Guideline for prevention and treatment of osteoporosis 2011. Life Science:64–65 (in Japanese)
Otis CL, Drinkwater B, Johnson M, Loucks A, Wilmore J (1997) American college of sports medicine position stand. The female athlete triad. Med Sci Sports Exerc 29:1–4
Rauh MJ, Nichols JF, Barrack MT (2010) Relationships among injury and disordered eating, menstrual dysfunction, and low bone mineral density in high school athletes: a prospective study. J Athl Train 45:243–252
Recker R, Lappe J, Davies KM, Heaney R (2004) Bone remodeling increases substantially in the years after menopause and remains increased in older osteoporosis patients. J Bone Miner Res 19:1628–1633
Reeves PG, Nielsen FH, Fahey GC Jr (1993) AIN-93 purified diets for laboratory rodents: final report of the American Institute of Nutrition ad hoc writing committee on the reformulation of the AIN-76A rodent diet. J Nutr 123:1939–1951
Ricci TA, Heymsfield SB, Pierson RN Jr, Stahl T, Chowdhury HA, Shapses SA (2001) Moderate energy restriction increases bone resorption in obese postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 73:347–352
Riggs BL, Khosla S, Melton LJ 3rd (2002) Sex steroids and the construction and conservation of the adult skeleton. Endocr Rev 23:279–302
Sasaki S (2002) Calcium nutrition on evidenced-based nutrition: systematic review of epidemiology on calcium intake and bone mineral density/fracture. Clin Calcium 12:1316–1319 (in Japanese)
Shea B, Wells G, Cranney A, Zytaruk N, Robinson V, Griffith L, Ortiz Z, Peterson J, Adachi J, Tugwell P, Guyatt G (2002) Meta-analyses of therapies for postmenopausal osteoporosis. VII. Meta-analysis of calcium supplementation for the prevention of postmenopausal osteoporosis. Endocr Rev 23:552–559
Taku K, Melby MK, Takebayashi J, Mizuno S, Ishimi Y, Omori T, Watanabe S (2010) Effect of soy isoflavone extract supplements on bone mineral density in menopausal women: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 19:33–42
Talbott SM, Rothkopf MM, Shapses SA (1998) Dietary restriction of energy and calcium alters bone turnover and density in younger and older female rats. J Nutr 128:640–645
Tang BM, Eslick GD, Nowson C, Smith C, Bensoussan A (2007) Use of calcium or calcium in combination with vitamin D supplementation to prevent fractures and bone loss in people aged 50 years and older: a meta-analysis. Lancet 25:657–666
Williams NI, Young JC, McArthur JW, Bullen B, Skrinar GS, Turnbull B (1995) Strenuous exercise with caloric restriction: effect on luteinizing hormone secretion. Med Sci Sports Exerc 27:1390–1398
Williams NI, Caston-Balderrama AL, Helmreich DL, Parfitt DB, Nosbisch C, Cameron JL (2001a) Longitudinal changes in reproductive hormones and menstrual cyclicity in cynomolgus monkeys during strenuous exercise training: abrupt transition to exercise-induced amenorrhea. Endocrinology 142:2381–2389
Williams NI, Helmreich DL, Parfitt DB, Caston-Balderrama A, Cameron JL (2001b) Evidence for a causal role of low energy availability in the induction of menstrual cycle disturbances during strenuous exercise training. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:5184–5193
Wu J, Yamakawa J, Tabata I, Yoshitake Y, Higuchi M (2000) Effect of swimming on bone mineral density in postmenopausal women. Tairyoku Kagaku 49:543–548 (in Japanese)
Wu J, Oka J, Tabata I, Higuchi M, Toda T, Fuku N, Ezaki J, Sugiyama F, Uchiyama S, Yamada K, Ishimi Y (2006) Effects of isoflavone and exercise on BMD and fat mass in postmenopausal Japanese women: a 1-year randomized placebo-controlled trial. J Bone Miner Res 21:780–789
Yanaka K, Higuchi M, Ishimi Y (2012) Effect of long-term voluntary exercise and energy restriction on bone mineral density in mature female rats. J Phys Fit Sport Med 1:695–702
Yoshimura N, Muraki S, Oka H, Kawaguchi H, Nakamura K, Akune T (2009) Cohortprofile: research on osteoarthritis/osteoporosis against disability study. Int J Epidemiol 39:988–995
Acknowledgements
This study was supported in part by the Global Center of Excellence (GCOE) Program of the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports and Technology for Waseda University.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2015 Springer Japan
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Ishimi, Y., Yanaka, K., Higuchi, M. (2015). Association Between Exercise and Diet on Maintaining Bone Health in Postmenopausal Women and Female Athletes. In: Kanosue, K., Oshima, S., Cao, ZB., Oka, K. (eds) Physical Activity, Exercise, Sedentary Behavior and Health. Springer, Tokyo. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-55333-5_22
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-55333-5_22
Publisher Name: Springer, Tokyo
Print ISBN: 978-4-431-55332-8
Online ISBN: 978-4-431-55333-5
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)