Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Micrometeorological Methods to Determine Evapotranspiration

  • Reference work entry
  • First Online:
Observation and Measurement of Ecohydrological Processes

Part of the book series: Ecohydrology ((ECOH,volume 2))

  • 788 Accesses

Abstract

Evapotranspiration (ET) is a combination of two distinct processes, soil or water evaporation (E) and plant transpiration (T), that occur between plants and the atmosphere, soil and the atmosphere, and water and the atmosphere. ET is also an important link between the terrestrial ecosystem and hydrological processes. In this chapter, we focus primarily on ET measurements using micrometeorological methods. Three typical ET measurement techniques, namely, the Bowen ratio-energy balance, eddy covariance, and scintillometer methods, which have a long history and are used widely throughout the world, are introduced. A brief review of their theoretical background, installation and maintenance, data processing and quality control, and footprint is presented, in addition to a brief summary of the advantages and disadvantages of each method. Additionally, ET measurements at observational networks and intensive experiments are presented. The ET measurement methods differ in observational theory, temporal–spatial scales, and precision. Researchers can select a suitable method according to their research objectives.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 299.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • N. Alavi, J.S. Warland, A.A. Berg, Filling gaps in evapotranspiration measurements for water budget studies: evaluation of a Kalman filtering approach. Agric. For. Meteorol. 141, 57–66 (2006)

    Google Scholar 

  • R.G. Allen, L.S. Pereira, T.A. Howell, M.E. Jensen, Evapotranspiration information reporting: I. Factors governing measurement accuracy. Agric. Water Manag. 98, 899–920 (2011)

    Google Scholar 

  • S.P. Anderson, R.C. Bales, C.J. Duffy, Critical zone observatories: building a network to advance interdisciplinary study of earth surface processes. Mineral. Mag. 72(1), 7–10 (2008)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • J.C. André, J.P. Goutorbe, A. Perrier, HAPEX–MOBLIHY: a hydrologic atmospheric experiment for the study of water budget and evaporation flux at the climatic scale. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 67(2), 138–144 (1986)

    Google Scholar 

  • E.L. Andreas, Two-wavelength method of measuring path-averaged turbulent surface heat fluxes. J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol. 62, 280–292 (1989)

    Google Scholar 

  • J. Bai, S.M. Liu, X.P. Ding, L. Lu, A study of the processing method of large aperture scintillometer observation data. Adv. Earth Science 25(11), 1148–1165 (2010.) (In Chinese with English abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • J. Bai, L. Jia, S.M. Liu, Z.W. Xu, G.C. Hu, M.J. Zhu, Characterizing the footprint of eddy covariance system and large aperture scintillometer measurements to validate satellite-based surface fluxes. IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett. 12(5), 943–947 (2015)

    Google Scholar 

  • D. Baldocchi, R. Valentini, S. Running, W. Oechel, R. Dahlman, Strategies f or measuring and modelling carbon dioxide and water vapour fluxes over terrestrial ecosystems. Glob. Chang. Biol. 2, 159–168 (1996)

    Google Scholar 

  • D. Baldocchi, E. Falge, L.H. Gu, R. Olson, D. Hollinger, S. Running, P. Anthoni, C. Bernhofer, K. Davis, R. Evans, J. Fuentes, A. Goldstein, G. Katul, B. Law, X.H. Lee, Y. Malhi, T. Meyers, W. Munger, W. Oechel, K.T. Paw U, K. Pilegaard, H.P. Schmid, R. Valentini, S. Verma, T. Vesala, K. Wilson, S. Wofsy, FLUXNET: a net tool to study the temporal and spatial variability of ecosystem-scale carbon dioxide, water vapor, and energy flux densities. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 82(11), 2415–2434 (2001)

    Google Scholar 

  • F. Beyrich, H. Mengelkamp, Evaporation over a heterogeneous land surface: EVA_GRIPS and the LITFASS-2003 experiment – an overview. Bound.-Layer Meteorol. 121, 5–32 (2006)

    Google Scholar 

  • F. Beyrich, H.J. Herzog, J. Neisser, The LIFASS project of DWD and the LITFASS-98 experiment: the project strategy and the experimental setup. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 73, 3–18 (2002)

    Google Scholar 

  • F. Beyrich, J. Bange, O.K. Hartogensis, S. Raasch, M. Braam, D. van Dinther, D. Gräf, B. van Kesteren, A.C. van den Kroonenberg, B. Maronga, S. Martin, A.F. Moene, Towards a validation of scintillometer measurements: the LITFASS-2009 experiment. Bound.-Layer Meteorol. 144, 83–112 (2012)

    Google Scholar 

  • H. Bogena, K. Schulz, H. Vereeken, Towards a network of observatories in terrestrial environmental research. Adv. Geosci. 9, 109–114 (2006)

    Google Scholar 

  • I.S. Bowen, The ratio of heat losses by conduction and by evaporation from any water surface. Phys. Rev. 27(6), 779–787 (1926)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • P. Cellier, Y. Brunet, Flux–gradient relationships above tall plant canopies. Agric. For. Meteorol. 58, 93–117 (1992)

    Google Scholar 

  • P. Cellier, A. Olioso, A simple system for automated long term Bowen ratio measurement. Agric. For. Meteorol. 66, 81–92 (1993)

    Google Scholar 

  • D. Charuchittipan, W. Babel, M. Mauder, J.P. Leps, T. Foken, Extension of the averaging time in eddy-covariance measurements and its effect on the energy balance closure. Bound.-Layer Meteorol. 152(3), 303–327 (2014)

    Google Scholar 

  • J.D. Cooper, Water use of a tea estate from soil moisture measurements. East Afr. Agric. For. J. 43, 102–121 (1979)

    Google Scholar 

  • H.A.R. De Bruin, Time to think, reflections of a pre-pensioned scintillometer researcher. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 90, ES17–ES26 (2009)

    Google Scholar 

  • H.A.R. De Bruin, J.M. Wang, Scintillometry: a review. ResearchGate (2017). https://www.researchgate.net/pulications/316285424

  • D. Dragoni, A.N. Lakso, R.M. Piccioni, Transpiration of apple trees in a humid climate using heat pulse sap flow gauges calibrated with whole-canopy gas exchange chambers. Agric. For. Meteorol. 130, 85–94 (2005)

    Google Scholar 

  • A. Ershadi, M.F. McCabe, J.P. Evans, N.W. Chaney, E.F. Wood, Multi-site evaluation of terrestrial evaporation models using FLUXNET data. Agric. For. Meteorol. 187, 46–61 (2014)

    Google Scholar 

  • J. Evans, H.A.R. De Bruin, The effective height of a two-wavelength scintillometer system. Bound.-Layer Meteorol. 141(1), 165–177 (2011)

    Google Scholar 

  • E. Falge, D.D. Baldocchi, R. Olson, P. Anthoni, M. Aubinet, C. Bernhofer, G. Burba, R. Ceulemans, R. Clement, H. Dolman, A. Granier, P. Gross, T. Grünwald, D. Hollinger, N.O. Jensen, G. Katul, P. Keronen, A. Kowalski, C.T. Lai, B.E. Law, T. Meyers, J. Moncrieff, E. Moors, J.W. Munger, K. Pilegaard, ü. Rannik, A. Rebmann, C. Suyker, J. Tenhunen, K. Tu, S. Verma, T. Vesala, K. Wilson, S. Wofsy, Gap filling strategies for defensible annual sums of net ecosystem exchange. Agric. For. Meteorol. 107, 43–69 (2001)

    Google Scholar 

  • C. Feigenwinter, C. Bernhofer, R. Vogt, The influence of advection on the short term CO2-budget in an above a forest canopy. Bound.-Layer Meteorol. 113, 201–224 (2004)

    Google Scholar 

  • P.L. Finkelstein, P.F. Sims, Sampling error in eddy correlation flux measurements. J. Geophys. Res. 106(D4), 3503–3509 (2001)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • J. Finnigan, The footprint concept in complex terrain. Agric. For. Meteorol. 127, 117–129 (2004)

    Google Scholar 

  • T.K. Flesch, J.D. Wilson, E. Yee, Backward-time Lagrangian stochastic dispersion models and their application to estimate gaseous emissions. J. Appl. Meteorol. 34(6), 1320–1332 (1995)

    Google Scholar 

  • T. Foken, The energy balance closure problem: an overview. Ecol. Appl. 18(6), 1351–1367 (2008)

    Google Scholar 

  • T. Foken, S.P. Oncley, Results of the workshop Instrumental and methodical problems of land surface flux measurements. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 76, 1191–1193 (1995)

    Google Scholar 

  • T. Foken, B. Wichura, Tools for quality assessment of surface-based flux measurements. Agric. For. Meteorol. 78, 83–105 (1996)

    Google Scholar 

  • T. Foken, M. Göckede, M. Mauder, L. Mahrt, B. Amiro, W. Munger, Post-field data quality control, in Handbook of Micrometeorology, ed. by X. Lee et al. (Kluwer, Dordrecht, 2004), pp. 181–208

    Google Scholar 

  • T. Foken, M. Mauder, C. Liebethal, F. Wimmer, F. Beyrich, J.P. Leps, S. Raasch, H.A.R. De Bruin, W.M.L. Meijninger, J. Bange, Energy balance closure for the LITFASS-2003 experiment. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 101, 149–160 (2010)

    Google Scholar 

  • T. Foken, M. Aubinet, R. Leuning, The eddy covariance method, in Eddy Covariance: A Practical Guide to Measurement and Data Analysis, Springer Atmospheric Sciences, ed. by M. Aubinet et al. (Springer, Dordrecht, 2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2351-1_1

    Google Scholar 

  • L.J. Fritschen, C.L. Fritschen, Bowen ratio energy balance method, in Micrometeorology in Agricultural Systems, ed. by J.L. Hatfield, J.M. Baker. Agronomy Series, vol. 47 (American Society of Agronomy, Madison, 2005), pp. 397–405

    Google Scholar 

  • L.J. Fritschen, J.R. Simpson, Surface energy balance and radiation systems: general description and improvements. J. Appl. Meteorol. 28, 680–689 (1989)

    Google Scholar 

  • L.J. Fritschen, L.W. Gay, J.R. Simpson, The effect of a moisture step change and advective conditions on the energy balance components of irrigated alfalfa, in Proceedings of the 16th Conference on Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, American Meteorological Society, Boston, 21–24 May 1983, pp. 83–86

    Google Scholar 

  • W.U. Garstka, Design of the automatic recording in-place lysimeters near Coshocton, Ohio. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 2, 555–559 (1937)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • J.P. Goutorbe, T. Lebel, A. Tinga, P. Bessemoulin, J. Brouwer, A.J. Dolman, E.T. Engman, J.H.C. Gash, M. Hoepffner, P. Kabat, Y.H. Kerr, B. Monteny, S. Prince, F. Said, P. Sellers, J.S. Wallace, HAPEX-Sahel: a large-scale study of land–atmosphere interactions in the semi-arid tropics. Ann. Geophys. 12(1), 53–64 (1994)

    Google Scholar 

  • S. Halldin, S.E. Gryning, L. Gottschalk, A. Jochum, L.C. Lundin, A.A. Van de Griend, Energy, water and carbon exchange in a boreal forest landscape – NOPEX experiences. Agric. For. Meteorol. 98–99, 5–29 (1999)

    Google Scholar 

  • O.K. Hartogensis, H.A.R. De Bruin, Monin–Obukhov similarity functions of the structure parameter of temperature and turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rate in the stable boundary layer. Bound.-Layer Meteorol. 116(2), 253–276 (2005)

    Google Scholar 

  • O.K. Hartogensis, C.J. Watts, J.C. Rodriguez, H.A.R. De Bruin, Derivation of an effective height for scintillometers: La Poza experiment in northwest Mexico. J. Hydrometeorol. 4, 915–928 (2003)

    Google Scholar 

  • J.L. Heilman, C.L. Brittin, C.M.U. Neale, Fetch requirements for Bowen ratio measurements of latent and sensible heat fluxes. Agric. For. Meteorol. 44, 261–273 (1989)

    Google Scholar 

  • B. Heusinkverld, A. Jacobs, A. Holtslag, et al., Surface energy balance closure in an arid region: role of soil heat flux. Agric. For. Meteorol. 122, 21–37 (2004)

    Google Scholar 

  • R.J. Hill, R.A. Bohlander, S.F. Clifford, R.W. McMillan, J.T. Priestly, W.P. Schoenfeld, Turbulence-induced millimeter-wave scintillation compared with micrometeorological measurements. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. 26, 330–342 (1988)

    Google Scholar 

  • J.C.B. Hoedjes, R.M. Zuurbier, C.J. Watts, Large aperture scintillometer used over a homogeneous irrigated area, partly affected by regional advection. Bound.-Layer Meteorol. 105, 99–117 (2002)

    Google Scholar 

  • D.Y. Hollinger, A.D. Richardson, Uncertainty in eddy covariance measurements and its application to physiological models. Tree Physiol. 25, 873–885 (2005)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • T.W. Horst, J.C. Weil, Footprint estimation for scalar flux measurements in the atmospheric surface layer. Bound.-Layer Meteorol. 59, 279–296 (1992)

    Google Scholar 

  • T.A. Howell, A.D. Schneider, M.E. Jensen, History of lysimeter design and use for evapotranspiration measurements, in Lysimeters for Evapotranspiration and Environmental Measurements, IR Diy/ASCE/Honolulu, 23–25 July 1991, pp. 1–9

    Google Scholar 

  • C.I. Hsieh, G. Katul, T.W. Chi, An approximate analytical model for footprint estimation of scalar fluxes in thermally stratified atmospheric flows. Adv. Water Resour. 23(7), 765–772 (2000)

    Google Scholar 

  • D.F. Hui, S. Wan, B. Su, G. Katul, R. Monson, Gap-filling missing data in eddy covariance measurements using multiple imputation (MI) for annual estimation. Agric. For. Meteorol. 121(1–2), 93–111 (2004)

    Google Scholar 

  • K.H. Jensen, T.H. Illangasekare, HOBE: a hydrological observatory. Vadose Zone J. 10, 1–7 (2011)

    Google Scholar 

  • Z.Z. Jia, S.M. Liu, Z.W. Xu, Y.J. Chen, M.J. Zhu, Validation of remotely sensed evapotranspiration over the Hai River Basin, China. J. Geophys. Res. 117, D13113 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JD017037

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • R. Jin, X. Li, B.P. Yan, X.H. Li, W.M. Luo, M.G. Ma, J.W. Guo, J. Kang, Z.L. Zhu, A nested eco-hydrological wireless sensor network for capturing surface heterogeneity in the middle-reach of Heihe River Basin, China. IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett. 11(11), 2015–2019 (2014)

    Google Scholar 

  • M. Khalil, M. Sakai, M. Mizoguchi, T. Miyazaki, Current and prospective applications of Zero Flux Plane (ZFP) method. J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys. 95, 75–90 (2003)

    Google Scholar 

  • J. Kleissl, J. Gomez, S.H. Hong, Large aperture scintillometer intercomparison study. Bound.-Layer Meteorol. 128, 133–150 (2009)

    Google Scholar 

  • R. Kormann, F.X. Meixner, An analytic footprint model for neutral stratification. Bound.-Layer Meteorol. 99, 207–224 (2001)

    Google Scholar 

  • M.R. Kuhlman, H. Loescher, R. Leonard, R. Farnsworth, T.E. Dawson, E.F. Kelly, A new engagement model to complete and operate the national ecological observatory network. Bull. Ecol. Soc. Am. 97, 283–287 (2016)

    Google Scholar 

  • D. Lenschow, J. Mann, L. Kristensen, How long is long enough when measuring fluxes and other turbulence statistics? J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol. 11(3), 661–673 (1994)

    Google Scholar 

  • X. Li, X.W. Li, Z.Y. Li, M.G. Ma, J. Wang, Q. Xiao, Q. Liu, T. Che, E.X. Chen, G.J. Yan, Z.Y. Hu, L.X. Zhang, R.Z. Chu, P.X. Su, Q.H. Liu, S.M. Liu, J.D. Wang, Z. Niu, Y. Chen, R. Jin, W.Z. Wang, Y.H. Ran, X.Z. Xin, H.Z. Ren, Watershed allied telemetry experimental research. J. Geophys. Res. 114, D22103 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JD011590

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • X. Li, G.D. Cheng, S.M. Liu, Q. Xiao, M.G. Ma, R. Jin, T. Che, Q.H. Liu, W.Z. Wang, Y. Qi, J.G. Wen, H.Y. Li, G.F. Zhu, J.W. Guo, Y.H. Ran, S.G. Wang, Z.L. Zhu, J. Zhou, X.L. Hu, Z.W. Xu, Heihe watershed allied telemetry experimental research (HiWATER): scientific objectives and experimental design. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 94(8), 1145–1160 (2013)

    Google Scholar 

  • C. Liebethal, B. Huwe, T. Foken, Sensitivity analysis for two ground heat flux calculation approaches. Agric. For. Meteorol. 132, 253–262 (2005)

    Google Scholar 

  • S.M. Liu, Z.W. Xu, W.Z. Wang, J. Bai, Z.Z. Jia, M.J. Zhu, J.M. Wang, A comparison of eddy-covariance and large aperture scintillometer measurements with respect to the energy balance closure problem. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 15(4), 1291–1306 (2011)

    Google Scholar 

  • S.M. Liu, Z.W. Xu, Z.L. Zhu, Z.Z. Jia, M.J. Zhu, Measurements of evapotranspiration from eddy-covariance systems and large aperture scintillometers in the Hai River Basin, China. J. Hydrol. 487, 24–38 (2013)

    Google Scholar 

  • S.M. Liu, Z.W. Xu, L.S. Song, Q.Y. Zhao, Y. Ge, T.R. Xu, Y.F. Ma, Z.L. Zhu, Z.Z. Jia, F. Zhang, Upscaling evapotranspiration measurements from multi-site to the satellite pixel scale over heterogeneous land surfaces. Agric. For. Meteorol. 230–231, 97–113 (2016)

    Google Scholar 

  • L. Lu, S.M. Liu, Z.W. Xu, J.M. Wang, X.W. Li, Results from measurements of large aperture scintillometer over different surfaces. J. Appl. Meteorol. Sci. 20(2), 171–178 (2009) (In Chinese with English abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • A. Lüdi, F. Beyrich, C. Matzler, Determination of the turbulent temperature–humidity correlation from scintillometric measurements. Bound.-Layer Meteorol. 117, 525–550 (2005)

    Google Scholar 

  • E. Malek, G.E. Bingham, Comparison of the Bowen ratio-energy balance and the water balance methods for the measurement of evapotranspiration. J. Hydrol. 146, 209–220 (1993)

    Google Scholar 

  • J. Mann, D.H. Lenschow, Errors in airborne flux measurements. J. Geophys. Res. 99(7), 14519–14526 (1994)

    Google Scholar 

  • M. Mauder, T. Foken, R. Clement, J.A. Elbers, W. Eugster, T. GrÃœnwald, B. Heusinkveld, O. Kolle, Quality control of CarboEurope flux data – part 2: inter-comparison of eddy-covariance software. Biogeosciences 5, 451–462 (2008)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • K.J. McAneney, A.E. Green, M.S. Astill, Large-aperture scintillometry – the homogeneous case. Agric. For. Meteorol. 76, 149–162 (1995)

    Google Scholar 

  • W.M.L. Meijninger, A.E. Green, O.K. Hartogensis, W. Kohsiek, C.B. Hoedjes, R.M. Zuurbier, H.A.R. De Bruin, Determination of area-averaged water vapour fluxes with large aperture and radio wave scintillometers over a heterogeneous surface – Flevoland field experiment. Bound.-Layer Meteorol. 105, 63–83 (2002)

    Google Scholar 

  • D. Michel, C. Jiménez, D.G. Miralles, M. Jung, M. Hirschi, A. Ershadi, B. Bartens, M.F. McCabe, J.B. Fisher, Q. Mu, S.I. Seneviratne, E.F. Wood, D. Fernández-Prieto, The WACMOS-ET project – part 1: tower-scale evaluation of four remote-sensing-based evapotranspiration algorithms. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 20, 803–822 (2016)

    Google Scholar 

  • A.F. Moene, F. Beyrich, O.K. Hartogensis, Developments in scintillometer. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 90(5), 694–698 (2009)

    Google Scholar 

  • J. Moncrieff, R. Clement, J. Finnigan, T. Meyers, Averaging, detrending, and filtering of eddy covariance time series, in Handbook of Micrometeorology, ed. by X. Lee et al. (Kluwer, Dordrecht, 2004), pp. 7–31

    Google Scholar 

  • T. Nakai, K. Shimoyama, Ultrasonic anemometer angle of attack errors under turbulent conditions. Agric. For. Meteorol. 162–163, 14–26 (2012)

    Google Scholar 

  • J.O. Payero, C.M.U. Neale, J.L. Wright, R.G. Allen, Guidelines for validating Bowen ratio data. Trans. ASAE 46(4), 1051–1060 (2003)

    Google Scholar 

  • P.J. Perez, F. Castellvi, M. Ibañez, J.I. Rosell, Assessment of reliability of Bowen ratio method for partitioning fluxes. Agric. For. Meteorol. 97, 141–150 (1999)

    Google Scholar 

  • J.H. Prueger, J.L. Hatfield, J.K. Aase, J.L. Pikul Jr., Bowen-ratio comparisons with lysimetric evapotranspiration. Agron. J. 89, 730–736 (1997)

    Google Scholar 

  • Y.H. Qu, Y.Q. Zhu, W.C. Han, J.D. Wang, M.G. Ma, Crop leaf area index observations with a wireless sensor network and its potential for validating remote sensing products. IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens. 7(2), 431–444 (2014)

    Google Scholar 

  • R. Ringgaard, M. Herbst, T. Friborg, K. Schelde, A.G. Thomsen, H. Soegaard, Energy fluxes above three disparate surfaces in a temperate mesoscale coastal catchment. Vadose Zone J. 11, 54–66 (2011)

    Google Scholar 

  • RPG Radiometer Physics GmbH, RPG-MWSC-160 microwave scintillometer manual, version 1.02. Meckenheim (2014)

    Google Scholar 

  • H.P. Schmid, Source areas for scalars and scalar fluxes. Bound.-Layer Meteorol. 67, 293–318 (1994)

    Google Scholar 

  • H.P. Schmid, Experimental design for flux measurements: matching scales of observations and fluxes. Agric. For. Meteorol. 87, 179–200 (1997)

    Google Scholar 

  • H.P. Schmid, Footprint modeling for vegetation atmosphere exchange studies: a review and perspective. Agric. For. Meteorol. 113, 159–183 (2002)

    Google Scholar 

  • P. Schotanus, F.T.M. Nieuwstadt, H.A.R. De Bruin, Temperature measurement with a sonic anemometer and its application to heat and moisture fluxes. Bound.-Layer Meteorol. 26, 81–93 (1983)

    Google Scholar 

  • P.J. Sellers, F.G. Hall, G. Asrar, D.E. Strebel, R.E. Murphy, The first ISLSCP field experiment (FIFE). Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 69(1), 22–27 (1988)

    Google Scholar 

  • P. Sellers, F. Hall, H. Margolis, B. Kelly, D. Baldocchi, G. Hartog, J. Cihlar, M.G. Ryan, B. Goodison, P. Crill, K.J. Ranson, D. Lettenmaier, D.E. Wickland, The boreal ecosystem–atmosphere study (BOREAS): an overview and early results from the 1994 field year. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 76, 1549–1577 (1995)

    Google Scholar 

  • D.I. Stannard, A theoretically based determination of Bowen-ratio fetch requirements. Bound.-Layer Meteorol. 83, 375–406 (1997)

    Google Scholar 

  • P.C. Stoy, M. Mauder, T. Foken, M. Barbara, E. Boegh, A. Ibrom, M.A. Arain, A. Arneth, M. Aurela, C. Bernhofer, A. Cescatti, E. Dellwik, P. Duce, D. Gianelle, E. Gorsel, G. Kiely, A. Knohl, H. Margolis, H. McCaughey, L. Merbold, L. Montagnani, D. Papale, M. Reichstein, M. Saunders, P. Serrano-Ortiz, M. Sottocornola, D. Spano, F. Vaccari, A. Varlagin, A data-driven analysis of energy balance closure across FLUXNET research sites: the role of landscape scale heterogeneity. Agric. For. Meteorol. 171–172, 137–152 (2013)

    Google Scholar 

  • W.C. Swinbank, The measurement of vertical transfer of heat and water vapor by eddies in the lower atmosphere. J. Meteorol. 8, 135–145 (1951)

    Google Scholar 

  • G.I. Taylor, The spectrum of turbulence. Proc. R. Soc. 164(919), 476–490 (1938)

    Google Scholar 

  • V. Thiermann, H. Grassl, The measurement of turbulent surface-layer fluxes by use of bichromatic scintillation. Bound.-Layer Meteorol. 58, 367–389 (1992)

    Google Scholar 

  • C.W. Thornthwaite, B. Holzman, The determination of evaporation from land and water surfaces. Mon. Weather Rev. 67(1), 4–11 (1939)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • R.W. Todd, S.R. Evett, T.A. Howell, The Bowen ratio-energy balance method for estimating latent heat flux of irrigated alfalfa evaluated in a semi-arid, advective environment. Agric. For. Meteorol. 103, 335–348 (2000)

    Google Scholar 

  • T.E. Twine, W.P. Kustas, J.M. Norman, D.R. Cook, P.R. Houser, T.P. Meyers, J.H. Prueger, P.J. Starks, M.L. Wesely, Correcting eddy-covariance flux underestimates over a grassland. Agric. For. Meteorol. 103, 279–300 (2000)

    Google Scholar 

  • H.E. Unland, P.R. Houser, W.J. Shuttleworth, Z.L. Yang, Surface flux measurement and modelling at a semi-arid Sonoran Desert site. Agric. For. Meteorol. 82, 119–153 (1996)

    Google Scholar 

  • S.B. Verma, N.J. Rosenberg, B.L. Blad, Turbulent exchange coefficients for sensible heat and water vapor under advective conditions. J. Appl. Meteorol. 17, 330–338 (1978)

    Google Scholar 

  • T.I. Wang, G.R. Ochs, S.F. Clifford, A saturation–resistant optical scintillometer to measure Cn2. J. Opt. Soc. Am. 69, 334–338 (1978)

    Google Scholar 

  • J.M. Wang, J.X. Zhuang, W.Z. Wang, S.M. Liu, Z.W. Xu, Assessment of uncertainties in eddy covariance flux measurement based on intensive flux matrix of HiWATER-MUSOEXE. IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett. 12(2), 259–263 (2015)

    Google Scholar 

  • H.C. Ward, Scintillometry in urban and complex environments: a review. Meas. Sci. Technol. 28, 064005 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6501/aa5e85

    Google Scholar 

  • E.K. Webb, G.I. Pearman, R. Leuning, Correction of flux measurements for density effects due to heat and water vapour transfer. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 106, 85–100 (1980)

    Google Scholar 

  • L.A. Wever, L.B. Flanagan, P.J. Carlson, Seasonal and interannual variation in evapotranspiration, energy balance and surface conductance in a northern temperate grassland. Agric. For. Meteorol. 112, 31–49 (2002)

    Google Scholar 

  • J.M. Wilczak, S.P. Oncley, S.A. Stage, Sonic anemometer tilt correction algorithms. Bound.-Layer Meteorol. 99, 127–150 (2001)

    Google Scholar 

  • K.B. Wilson, D.D. Baldocchi, Seasonal and interannual variability of energy fluxes over a broadleaved temperate deciduous forest in North America. Agric. For. Meteorol. 100, 1–18 (2000)

    Google Scholar 

  • K.B. Wilson, P.J. Hanson, P.J. Mulholland, D.D. Baldocchi, S.D. Wullschleger, A comparison of methods for determining forest evapotranspiration and its components: sap-flow, soil water budget, eddy covariance and catchment water balance. Agric. For. Meteorol. 106, 153–168 (2001)

    Google Scholar 

  • S.D. Wullschleger, F.C. Meinzer, R.A. Vertessy, A review of whole-plant water use studies in trees. Tree Physiol. 18, 499–512 (1998)

    Google Scholar 

  • Z.W. Xu, S.M. Liu, X. Li, S.J. Shi, J.M. Wang, Z.L. Zhu, T.R. Xu, W.Z. Wang, M.G. Ma, Intercomparison of surface energy flux measurement systems used during the HiWATER-MUSOEXE. J. Geophys. Res. 118, 13140–13157 (2013)

    Google Scholar 

  • Z.W. Xu, Y.F. Ma, S.M. Liu, W.J. Shi, J.M. Wang, Assessment of the energy balance closure under advective conditions and its impact using remote sensing data. J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol. 56(1), 127–140 (2017)

    Google Scholar 

  • T.R. Xu, S.M. Liu, Z.W. Xu, S.L. Liang, L. Xu, A dual-pass data assimilation scheme for estimating surface energy fluxes with FY3-AVIRR land surface temperature. Sci. China Earth Sci. 58(2), 211–230 (2015)

    Google Scholar 

  • K. Yang, J. Wang, A temperature prediction–correction method for estimating surface soil heat flux from soil temperature and moisture data. Science 51(5), 721–729 (2008)

    Google Scholar 

  • S. Zacharias, H. Bogena, L. Samaniego, M. Mauder, R. Fuβ, T. Pütz, M. Frenzel, M. Schwank, C. Baessler, K. Butterbach-Bahl, O. Bens, E. Borg, A. Brauer, P. Dietrich, I. Hajnsek, G. Helle, R. Kiese, H. Kunstmann, S. Klotz, J.C. Munch, H. Paper, E. Priesack, H.P. Schmid, R. Steinbrecher, U. Rosenbaum, G. Teutsch, H. Vereeken, A network of terrestrial environmental observatories in Germany. Vadose Zone J. 10, 955–973 (2011)

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, School of Natural Resources, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China

    Shaomin Liu & Ziwei Xu

Authors
  1. Shaomin Liu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ziwei Xu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Shaomin Liu .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research, CAS Center for Excellence in Tibetan Plateau Earth Sciences Chinese, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China

    Xin Li

  2. Agrosphere Institute (IBG-3), Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Jülich, Germany

    Harry Vereecken

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Liu, S., Xu, Z. (2019). Micrometeorological Methods to Determine Evapotranspiration. In: Li, X., Vereecken, H. (eds) Observation and Measurement of Ecohydrological Processes. Ecohydrology, vol 2. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-48297-1_7

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation