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Place, Geographical Context and Subjective Well-being: State of Art and Future Directions

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Mobility, Sociability and Well-being of Urban Living

Abstract

Well-being has recently been a focus for both social policies and academic studies. Along different dimensions (e.g., objective vs. subjective; hedonic vs. eudaimonic) of well-being, the hedonic view of well-being has drawn much scholarly attention, especially in economics and psychology. While well-being studies in the area of geography are still in their infancy, many scholars have noticed the spatial differences in subjective well-being (SWB) and the importance of the place-based context on well-being. To promote studies on the multifarious links between the geographical context and SWB, this chapter systematically introduces the concepts, measures, and theories of SWB and then provides an overview of the studies concerning geographical context and well-being. We conclude the chapter with a description of the issues related to the linkages between SWB and geographies that need future research.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    However, QoL not only denotes subjective experiences (e.g., Galbraith 1958) but also includes various objective factors (Ballas 2013).

  2. 2.

    Some definitions of SWB also incorporate eudaimonic aspects, such as the sense of “achievement” (e.g., Morrison 2007). However, the eudaimonic components are more commonly examined under the term “psychological well-being” (Ryff 1989) instead of SWB.

  3. 3.

    Veenhoven maintains the World Database of Happiness (http://worlddatabaseofhappiness.eur.nl/), which contains an archive of various measures of subjective well-being.

  4. 4.

    Because we focus on the explanation of intra-urban difference in SWB, the number of studies at the intra-urban level reviewed above is not necessarily smaller than the number of studies conducted at the macro levels.

  5. 5.

    We would like to thank Dr. Dick Ettema for pointing out this issue.

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Acknowledgements

The article has benefited from the constructive comments by Dick Ettema. The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 41371181) and the Hong Kong Research Grant Council (Grant No. HKBU247813).

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  1. Institute of Urban Development, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China

    Fenglong Wang & Donggen Wang

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  1. Fenglong Wang
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Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Geography, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong

    Donggen Wang

  2. Department of Urban Planning and Design, The University of Hong Kong Department of Urban Planning and Design, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong

    Shenjing He

Appendix: Existing Literature on Geographical Determinants of SWB

Appendix: Existing Literature on Geographical Determinants of SWB

Studies

Data

Measure

Method

Determinants

Socio-economic development and cultural context

Diener et al. (1995b)

Compiled surveys in 55 nations by Veenhoven and by Michalos

Happiness and LS

Correlation

Income (+), individualism (+), human rights (+), societal equality (+) → LS

Haller and Hadler (2006)

World value survey

LS and happiness

Multilevel regression

Country-level GNP (+), gini–index (+), growth of GDP (+) → SWB; social expenditure (+) → LS

Gerstorf et al. (2010)

German socioeconomic panel study

How satisfied are you with your life concurrently, all things considered?

Growth curve model

County-level GDP (+), county-level rate of unemployment (-) → LS

Elgar et al. (2011)

World values survey

All things considered, how satisfied are you with your life as a whole these days?

Multilevel linear regression

Gross national income (GNI) per capita (+), country-level average social capital (interaction) → LS

Aslam and Corrado (2012)

European social survey

All things considered, how satisfied are you with your life as a whole nowadays?

Multilevel modeling with random and fixed effects

Region-level average household income (+), trust (+), religiosity (+), health (+) → LS

Mellander et al. (2012)

The gallup world poll (2009)

LS

Correlation and OLS

Country-level GDP per capita (+), Post-industrial/creative class factor (+) → LS

Lin et al. (2014)

World database of happiness

Happiness

OLS and spatial autoregressive regression

Nation-level GDP per capita (+), unemployment rate (*), control of corruption (+), life expectancy at birth (+) → happiness

Helliwell (2003)

World values survey

All things considered, how satisfied are you with your life as a whole these days?

OLS and ordered probit with robust standard errors

Nation-level social capital in terms of participation in voluntary organizations (+), national income per capita (inverse U-shape), average level of interpersonal trust (+), quality of governance (+), average educational attainment (+) → LS

Stanca (2010)

World values survey

LS and happiness

OLS, spatial lag model and spatial error model

Effect of income on well-being is larger in countries with lower GDP per capita, negative effect of being unemployed is stronger in countries with higher unemployment rate or higher GDP per capita

Bjørnskov et al. 2008a

World values survey

All things considered, how satisfied are you with your life as a whole these days?

Extreme bounds analysis

Review of existing determinants; openness (+), investment price (+), postcommunism (−), bicameral parliament (+), Christian majority (+), infant mortality (−) → LS

Bjørnskov et al. 2008b

Semi-annual Eurobarometer surveys (1973–2002)

On the whole how satisfied are you with the life you lead?

Panel regression model

GDP per capita relative to neighboring countries (+), government consumption relative to neighboring countries (+) → trends in LS

Helliwell and Putnam (2004)

World values survey, the US benchmark survey, etc.

SWB

Multilevel analysis

Nation/community-level average membership (+), governance quality (+) → SWB

Rice and Steele (2004)

World values surveys and general social surveys

Happiness

Correlation and regression

Happiness for the citizens in a nation (+) → LS for the Americans with ancestors from that nation

Morrison et al. (2011)

A World Poll conducted by the Gallup Organization

Cantril’s (1965) self-anchoring striving scale

Multilevel modeling

National satisfaction (+) → LS

Heukamp and Ariño (2011)

World values survey

All things considered, how satisfied are you with your life as a whole these days?

OLS

Nation-level nationality rate (+), life expectancy (+), level of corruption (−), Muslim culture (−), Latitude (−) → LS

Ogihara and Uchida (2014)

A sample of undergraduate students in Japan and the US and women workers in Japan

SWB

ANOVA and OLS

Individualistic values were negatively related to SWB in Japan but not in the US

Climate and pollution

Rehdanz and Maddison (2005)

World database of happiness

LS

OLS with panel-corrected least squares

National proportion of population under 15 years (+), proportion of Buddhist (−), mean temperature in hottest month (−), mean temperature in coldest month (+), months when average mean precipitation is below 30 mm (−) → LS

Fischer and Van de Vliert (2011)

Meta-analytically compiled data

SWB

Path model

Demanding climates (−) → SWB

Murray et al. (2013)

European values study

All things considered, how satisfied are you with your life as a whole these days?

OLS, ordered logit and IV

Region-level costal line dummy (−), population density (−), size (*), standard deviation of average annual temperature (−), annual relative humidity (−), percentage sunshine (+), precipitation (*), standard deviation of total rain days (−) → LS

Welsch (2006)

World database of happiness

LS

GLS regression

Country-level nitrogen dioxide concentration (−), lead concentration (*), total suspended particulate concentration (−) → LS

Luechinger (2010)

Eurobarometer

LS

OLS and instrumental variable estimates

Nation-level air pollution (concentration of SO2) (−), urbanization (*), real GDP per capita (+), % of agricultural sector in GDP (+), Mean temperature (+) → LS

Lawless and Lucas (2011)

Behavioral risk factor surveillance system (2005–2008)

In general, how satisfied are you with your life?

Correlation

County-level population (−), population density (−), commute time (−) → LS

Cuñado and de Gracia (2013)

European social survey

How happy are you?

OLS

Region-level July minimum temperature (−), PM10 (−), CO2 (−) → happiness

Ferreira et al. (2013)

European social survey

All things considered, how satisfied are you with your life as a whole nowadays?

OLS

Regional-level air pollution (concentration of SO2) (−), unemployment rate (−), annual mean precipitation (+), temperature (*) → LS

MacKerron and Mourato (2009)

A web survey

All things considered, how satisfied are you with your life as a whole nowadays?

Ordered probit and OLS regression

Room space (+), NO2 concentration (+), noise in street or block (*), sunny weather (*), approximation to CBD (−) → LS

Brereton et al. (2008)

A survey in Ireland

Which of these answers best describes your life as a whole?

OLS and ordered probit regressions

Wind speed (−), temperature (+), population density (+), proximity to landfill (−), proximity to coast (+), proximity to airport (+), proximity to major road (−) → LS

Li et al. (2014)

A survey in China

Happiness (overall and domain)

Structural equation model

Perceived risk due to intensity of exposure and hazard of pollutants (−), living in moderately and heavily polluted districts (+) → happiness

Urban characteristics

Berry and Okulicz-Kozaryn (2011)

The general social survey (1972–2008)

Taken all together, how would you say things are these days?

Ordinal logistic regression model with fixed-effect

Small towns/country > suburbs > small city (50–250 k) > large city (>250 k)

Cramer et al. (2004)

A survey in Oslo in 1994

SWB

OLS

Population density in living area (−) → SWB

Leyden et al. (2011)

Quality of life survey in 10 cities

How happy are you now?

Ordered logit model

Neighborhood connection (+), city-level volunteer opportunities (+), job opportunities (+), access to urban facilities (+), quality of governance (+), maintenance of urban public sphere (+) → happiness

Florida et al. (2013)

A survey conducted by the Gallup Organization

Gallup–healthways well-being index

Correlation and regression

Metropolitan-level wage income (+), unemployment rate (−), housing-to-wage ratio (+), human capital (+), population density (*), average commute time (*) → SWB

Poon and Shang (2014)

China general social survey 2006

Happiness

OLS

City income per capita (+), urban safety (+), openness of urban environment (+), home ownership (+) → happiness

Smyth et al. (2011)

A survey in six Chinese cities in 2007

Personal well-being Index

OLS

City-level average income of urban residents (−), atmospheric pollution (SO2/particles) (−), passenger vehicles (−) → SWB

Knight and Gunatilaka (2010)

2002 national household survey

Generally speaking, how happy are you these days?

OLS

Perceived nation- and city-level fairness of income distribution (+), per capita income in province (−), social problem such as unemployment, corruption and social polarization (−) → urban happiness

Ballas and Tranmer (2012)

British household panel survey

General health questionnaire

Multilevel modeling

District-level unemployment status (+) → SWB

Balducci and Checchi (2009)

A survey of ten metropolitan cities

How happy are you now?

OLS and ordered probit

Urban level culture factor (+), welfare factor (+), safety factor (*), lack of pollution factor (*), living conditions factor (+), community life factor (−) → happiness

Shucksmith et al. (2009)

European quality of life survey

Subjective quality of life (Mean of LS and happiness)

Multilevel model

Difficulties with access to health services (−) → SWB

Smyth et al. (2008)

Data collected by China Mainland Marketing Research Company

How satisfied do you feel with your life these days?

OLS

Province-level SO2 emissions (−), N of environmental disasters (−), city-level green area per capita (+), improvement in neighborhood environment (+), perceived income inequality (−), social problem (−) → LS

White et al. (2013)

British household panel survey

How dissatisfied or satisfied are you with your life overall?

Fixed-effects regression

District-level % of green space (+), education (+) → LS

Ambrey and Fleming (2014)

Household, income and labor dynamics in Australia survey

All things considered, how satisfied are you with your life?

OLS and ordered logit model

District-level population density (*), public green space (+), proximity to coastline (+), commute time (−), proximity to airport (−) → LS

Housing and neighborhood environment

Fleuret and Atkinson (2007)

Conceptual framework

Health-related well-being

–

Spaces of capability, integrative spaces, spaces of security and therapeutic spaces → health-related well-being

Sugiyama and Thompson (2007)

Theoretical framework

–

–

Environmental support → outdoor activity → QoL

Mccrea et al. (2005)

A survey in in Australia

LS

Path model

Regional service (+) → regional satisfaction (+) → LS; housing temperature (+), housing age (−), housing ownership (+) → housing satisfaction (+) → LS; neighborhood interaction (+), crime (−), services (+) → neighborhood satisfaction (+) → regional satisfaction (+) and housing satisfaction (+) → LS

Morrison (2011)

Quality of life survey

SWB

Ordered-probit model

Neighborhood accessibility to retail, banking, public transport and education provider (+), sense of community (+), neighborhood safety (+) → SWB

Arifwidodo and Perera (2011)

A survey in Indonesia

How dissatisfied or satisfied are you with your life overall?

Ordered-probit and OLS

District density (−), self-rated air pollution (−), safety in the neighborhood (+), dummy of city center (+), homeownership (−), neighborhood solid waste problem (−), number of schools and hospitals (+) → LS

Delbosc and Currie (2011)

A survey in Australia

SWB (LS, personal well-being index, PA, NA)

Correlation

Perceived travel disadvantage in terms of “Frequency of difficulties accessing activities” and “Number of activities cannot do” due to transport problems (−) → SWB

Sugiyama et al. (2009)

A mail survey in the Britain

Satisfaction with life scale (SWLS)

Logistic regression

Pleasantness of open spaces (+), safety of open spaces (+), distance to open spaces (−) → LS

Pedersen and Schmidt (2011)

European community household panel (1994–2001)

Satisfaction with work or main activity

Fixed-effect conditional logit models

Review of links between income and SWB; neighborhood pollution (−), neighborhood crime (−) → satisfaction with main activity

Sirgy and Cornwell (2002)

A mail survey

How do you feel about your life as a whole?

Structural equation model

Satisfaction with physical features (+) → neighborhood and housing satisfaction; satisfaction with social features (+) → neighborhood and community satisfaction; satisfaction with economic features (+) → housing and home satisfaction → LS; home satisfaction (+), community satisfaction (+) → LS

Shields et al. (2009)

Household, income and labor dynamics in australia survey

All things considered, how satisfied are you with your life?

Regression with fixed effects

neighborhood % lone parents (−), % NESB immigrants (−), over 65 factor (−), social interaction (+) → LS

Dittmann and Goebel, 2010

German Socioeconomic Panel

How satisfied are you with your life in general?

OLS and Fixed-effect panel model

Neighborhood status (+), fear of crime (*), social cohesion (+), positive status than neighbors (+) → LS

Ludwig et al. (2012)

A sample of low income public housing residents in the US

Taken all together, how would you say things are these days?

Instrumental variables regression

Census tract-level % of the poor (−), % of minority (−), N of moves (+) → happiness

Kingdon and Knight (2007)

SALDRU national household survey of 1993

Taking everything into account, how satisfied is this household with the way it lives these days?

Ordered probit and OLS

Living in a metropolitan city (−), Cluster/district-level unemployment rate (*), mean years of education (*), per capita income (+), home ownership (+), community facilities (*) → LS

Ferrer-i-Carbonell and Gowdy (2007)

British household panel survey

How dissatisfied or satisfied are you with your life overall

Ordered probit regression

Housing environmental problems (−), cares about ozone layer (−) → LS

Morrison (2007)

2004 quality of life survey

Happiness, LS, QoL

Ordered probit regression

Housing tenure (*), dummies of different cities → SWB

Guite et al. (2006)

A postal survey in London

Mental health

Univariate logistic regression

Housing environment (+), design and maintenance of the estate (+), neighborhood noise (+), density (−), fear of crime (−), social participation (+) → mental health

Ibem and Amole (2013)

A sample of public housing residents in Nigeria

How satisfied are you with life generally in your current residence?

OLS

Housing tenure, state of repair of residence, factors of satisfaction with housing environment (+) → LS

Rehdanz and Maddison (2008)

German socioeconomic panel

How satisfied are you with your life, all things considered?

Ordered probit model

Perception of air pollution (−), noise (−), housing expenses (−), housing condition (+), building type (*), size of property (+), building age (−), distance to city center (*), distance to public transport stop (−), state-level rate of unemployment (−), state GDP per capita (*) → LS

  1. *LS denotes for life satisfaction; (+) and (−) denotes positive and negative effects, respectively; (*) denotes the effect is insignificant; QoL denotes quality of life; PA and NA denotes positive and negative affect, respectively

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Wang, F., Wang, D. (2016). Place, Geographical Context and Subjective Well-being: State of Art and Future Directions. In: Wang, D., He, S. (eds) Mobility, Sociability and Well-being of Urban Living. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-48184-4_10

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