Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Brain Sonography

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
Pediatric Neuroradiology

Abstract

Ultrasonography is the most easily available imaging technique to study the newborn and infant brain. It is non-invasive, non-irradiating and easily repeatable. The aim of this chapter is to review the US findings of normal brain anatomy, congenital malformations, hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, hemorrhagic lesions and their complications, and intracranial infections. A review of gray-scale and Doppler techniques is also included.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abbitt PL, Hurst RW, Ferguson RD, McIlhenny J, Alford BA. The role of ultrasound in the management of vein of Galen aneurysms in infancy. Neuroradiology. 1990;32:86–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Adcock LM, Moore PJ, Schlesinger AE, Armstrong DL. Correlation of ultrasound with postmortem neuropathologic studies in neonates. Pediatr Neurol. 1998;19:263–71.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Allison JW, Faddis LA, Kinder DL, Roberson PK, Glasier CM, Seibert JJ. Intracranial resistive index (RI) values in normal term infants during the first day of life. Pediatr Radiol. 2000;30:618–20.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Antoun H, Adamsbaum C, Kalifa G. Sinus pericranii. J Radiol. 1997;78:593–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong DL, Sauls CD, Goddard-Finegold J. Neuropathologic findings in short-term survivors of intraventricular hemorrhage. Am J Dis Child. 1987;141:617–21.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Auriemma A, Poggiani C, Menghini P, Bellan C, Colombo A. Lipoma of the corpus callosum in a neonate: sonographic evaluation. Pediatr Radiol. 1993;23:155–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Babcock DS. Sonographic demonstration of lissencephaly (agyria). J Ultrasound Med. 1983;2:465–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Babcock DS. Sonography of congenital malformations of the brain. Neuroradiology. 1986;28:428–39.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Babcock DS. Sonography of the brain in infants: role in evaluating neurologic abnormalities. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1995;165:417–23.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Babcock DS, Han BK. Caffey award: cranial sonographic findings in meningomyelocele. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1981;136:563–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Babcock DS, Han BK, Dine MS. Sonographic findings in infants with macrocrania. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1988;150:1359–65.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Balcom TA, Redmond BG. Cerebral infarction as multifocal clonic seizures in a term neonate. J Am Board Fam Pract. 1997;10:43–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Banker BQ, Larroche JC. Periventricular leukomalacia of infancy. A form of neonatal anoxic encephalopathy. Arch Neurol. 1962;7:386–410.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barkovich AJ, Kjos BO. Normal postnatal development of the corpus callosum as demonstrated by MR imaging. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1988;9:487–91.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barkovich AJ, Truwit CL. Brain damage from perinatal asphyxia: correlation of MR findings with gestational age. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1990;11:1087–96.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barkovich AJ, Kjos BO, Norman D, Edwards MS. Revised classification of posterior fossa cysts and cystlike malformations based on the results of multiplanar MR imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1989;153:1289–300.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barr LL. Neonatal cranial ultrasound. Radiol Clin North Am. 1999;37:1127–46.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bellah RD. Cranial sonography and intracranial hemorrhage in the premature infant. In: Bluth EI, Arger PH, Hertzberg BS, Middleton WD, editors. Syllabus: a special course in ultrasound. Chicago: RSNA; 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Ami T, Yousefzadeh D, Backus M, Reichman B, Kessler A, Hammerman-Rozenberg C. Lenticulostriate vasculopathy in infants with infections of the central nervous system sonographic and Doppler findings. Pediatr Radiol. 1990;20:575–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benders MJ, Kersbergen KJ, de Vries LS. Neuroimaging of white matter injury, intraventricular and cerebellar haemorrhage. Clin Perinatol. 2014;41:69–82.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bernard C, Droulle P, Didier F, Gerard H, Larroche JC, Plenat F, Bomsel F, Roland J, Hoeffel JC. Echographic aspects of cerebral sulci in the ante- and perinatal period. J Radiol. 1988;69:521–32.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blankenberg FG, Loh NN, Norbash AM, Craychee JA, Spielman DM, Person BL, Berg CA, Enzmann DR. Impaired cerebrovascular autoregulation after hypoxic-ischemic injury in extremely low-birth-weight neonates: detection with power and pulsed wave Doppler US. Radiology. 1997;205:563–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boal DK, Watterberg KL, Miles S, Gifford KL. Optimal cost-effective timing of cranial ultrasound screening in low-birth-weight infants. Pediatr Radiol. 1995;25:425–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bode H, Rudin C. Calcifying arteriopathy in the basal ganglia in human immunodeficiency virus infection. Pediatr Radiol. 1995;25:72–3.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bode H, Wais U. Age dependence of flow velocities in basal cerebral arteries. Arch Dis Child. 1988;63:606–11.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bode H, Sauer M, Pringsheim W. Diagnosis of brain death by transcranial Doppler sonography. Arch Dis Child. 1988;63:1474–8.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bohlayer R, Strassburg HM, Sauer M. The cavum septi pellucidi and cavum Vergae in infants – an investigation with 2-dimensional sector-echo encephalography. Klin Padiatr. 1983;195:92–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bowerman RA. Tangential sulcal echoes. Potential pitfall in the diagnosis of parenchymal lesions on cranial sonography. J Ultrasound Med. 1987;6:685–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bowerman RA, Donn SM, DiPietro MA, D’Amato CJ, Hicks SP. Periventricular leukomalacia in the pre-term newborn infant: sonographic and clinical features. Radiology. 1984;151:383–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brennan CM, Taylor GA. Sonographic imaging of the posterior fossa utilizing the formane magnum. Pediatr Radiol. 2010;40:1411–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brouwer MJ, de Vries LS, Pistorius L. Ultrasound measurements of the lateral ventricles in neonates: why, how and when? A systematic review. Acta Paediatr. 2010;99:1298–306.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown WD, Gerfen GW, Vachon LA, Nelson Jr MD. Real-time ultrasonography of arterial IVH in preterm infants. Pediatr Neurol. 1994;11:325–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bulas DI, Vezina GL. Preterm anoxic injury. Radiologic evaluation. Radiol Clin North Am. 1999;37:1147–61.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Butt W, Mackay RJ, de Crespigny LC, Murton LJ, Roy RN. Intracranial lesions of congenital cytomegalovirus infection detected by ultrasound scanning. Pediatrics. 1984;73:611–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cabanas F, Pellicer A, Perez-Higueras A, Garcia-Alix A, Roche C, Quero J. Ultrasonographic findings in thalamus and basal ganglia in term asphyxiated infants. Pediatr Neurol. 1991;7:211–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cabanas F, Pellicer A, Morales C, Garcia-Alix A, Stiris TA, Quero J. New pattern of hyperechogenicity in thalamus and basal ganglia studied by color Doppler flow imaging. Pediatr Neurol. 1994;10:109–16.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cadier L, Souyris S, Diard F. Total agenesis of the corpus callosum: ultrasonographic appearances. In two cases. J Radiol. 1982;63:429–32.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cakmakci H, Gulcu A, Zenger MN. J Clin Ultrasound. 2003;31:437–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen CY, Chou TY, Zimmerman RA, Lee CC, Chen FH, Faro SH. Pericerebral fluid collection: differentiation of enlarged subarachnoid spaces from subdural collections with color Doppler US. Radiology. 1996;201:389–92.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen CY, Huang CC, Chang YC, Chow NH, Chio CC, Zimmerman RA. Subdural empyema in 10 infants: US characteristics and clinical correlates. Radiology. 1998;207:609–17.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chow PP, Horgan JG, Burns PN, Weltin G, Taylor KJ. Choroid plexus papilloma: detection by real-time and Doppler sonography. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1986;7:168–70.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chuang S, Harwood-Nash D. Tumors and cysts. Neuroradiology. 1986;28:463–75.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cioffi V, Bossi MC, Ballarati E, Solbiati L. Lissencephaly in two brothers detected by US. A “pseudo-liver” pattern. Pediatr Radiol. 1991;21:512–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coley BD, Siegel MJ. Spinal ultrasonography. In: Siegel MJ, editor. Pediatric sonography. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluver/Lippincot Williams & Wilkins; 2011. p. 647–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coley BD, Rusin JA, Boue DR. Importance of hypoxic/ischemic conditions in the development of cerebral lenticulostriate vasculopathy. Pediatr Radiol. 2000;30:846–55.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Connolly B, Kelehan P, O’Brien N, Gorman W, Murphy JF, King M, Donoghue V. The echogenic thalamus in hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy. Pediatr Radiol. 1994;24:268–71.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Correa F, Enriquez G, Aso C, Carreno JC, Gonzalez R, Padilla NF. Mastoid fontanelle approach for sonographic imaging of the neonatal brain. Pediatr Radiol. 2006;36:532–40.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Counsell SJ, Maalouf EF, Rutherford MA, Edwards AD. Periventricular haemorrhagic infarct in a preterm neonate. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 1999;3:25–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Couture A, Veyrac C. Transfontanellar Doppler imaging in neonates. Berlin: Springer; 2001.

    Google Scholar 

  • Couture A, Veyrac C, Baud C. Echographie cérébrale du foetus au nouveau né. Montpellier: Sauramps Médical; 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  • Couture A, Veyrac C, Saguintaah M, Baud C, Ferran JL. Brain ultrasonography in the premature infant. Pediatr Radiol. 2006;36:626–35.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cramer BC, Jequier S, O’Gorman AM. Sonography of the neonatal craniocervical junction. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1986;147:133–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cubberley DA, Jaffe RB, Nixon GW. Sonographic demonstration of Galenic arteriovenous malformations in the neonate. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1982;3:435–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de la Cruz R, Millan JM, Miralles M, Munoz MJ. Cranial sonographic evaluation in children with meningomyelocele. Childs Nerv Syst. 1989;5:94–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Vries LS, Regev R, Connell JA, Bydder GM, Dubowitz LM. Localized cerebral infarction in the premature infant: an ultrasound diagnosis correlated with computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. Pediatrics. 1988;81:36–40.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Vries LS, Groenendaal F, Eken P, van Haastert IC, Rademaker KJ, Meiners LC. Infarcts in the vascular distribution of the middle cerebral artery in preterm and fullterm infants. Neuropediatrics. 1997;28:88–96.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Vries LS, Gunardi H, Barth PG, Bok LA, Verboon-Maciolek MA, Groenendaal F. The spectrum of cranial ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging abnormalities in congenital cytomegalovirus infection. Neuropediatrics. 2004;35:113–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dean LM, Taylor GA. The intracranial venous system in infants: normal and abnormal findings on duplex and color Doppler sonography. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1995;164:151–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deeg KH. Sonographic characteristics of the Arnold-Chiari syndrome and hydrocephalus in children with meningomyelocele. Monatsschr Kinderheilkd. 1984;132:854–60.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deeg KH. Sonographic diagnosis of cerebral malformations. Part 3. Agenesis of the corpus callosum – migration disorders. Ultraschall Med. 2011;32:128–44.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deeg KH, Gassner I. Sonographic diagnosis of brain malformations. Part 2. Holoprosencephaly, hydranencephaly, agenesis of septum pellucidum, schizencephaly, septo-optical dysplasia. Ultraschall Med. 2010a;31:548–60.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deeg KH, Gassner I. Sonographic diagnosis of cerebral malformations in infancy. Part 1. Chiari and Dandy-Walker malformations. Ultraschall Med. 2010b;31:446–62.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deeg KH, Scharf J. Colour Doppler imaging of arteriovenous malformation of the vein of Galen in a newborn. Neuroradiology. 1990;32:60–3.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deeg KH, Wild F, Harms D. Sonographic diagnosis of alobar holoprosencephaly. Monatsschr Kinderheilkd. 1989;137:333–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deeg KH, Rupprecht T, Zeilinger G. Dopplersonographic classification of brain edema in infants. Pediatr Radiol. 1990;20:509–14.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeRoo TR, Harris RD, Sargent SK, Denholm TA, Crow HC. Fetal choroid plexus cysts: prevalence, clinical significance, and sonographic appearance. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1988;151:1179–81.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Di Salvo DN. A new view of the neonatal brain: clinical utility of supplemental neurologic US imaging windows. Radiographics. 2001;21:943–55.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DiPietro MA. Cranial and spinal sonography: observations, opinions, practices (OOPS). In: Syllabus of postgraduate course of SPR. Philadelphia: The Society for Pediatric Radiology; 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  • DiPietro MA, Brody BA, Teele RL. Peritrigonal echogenic “blush” on cranial sonography: pathologic correlates. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1986;146:1067–72.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dubowitz LM, Levene MI, Morante A, Palmer P, Dubowitz V. Neurologic signs in neonatal intraventricular hemorrhage: a correlation with real-time ultrasound. J Pediatr. 1981;99:127–33.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eken P, Toet MC, Groenendaal F, de Vries LS. Predictive value of early neuroimaging, pulsed Doppler and neurophysiology in full term infants with hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 1995;73:F75–80.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • El Ayoubi M, de Bethmann O, Monset-Couchard M. Lenticulostriate echogenic vessels: clinical and sonographic study of 70 neonatal cases. Pediatr Radiol. 2003;33:697–703.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • El Ayoubi M, de Bethmann O, Firtion G, Monset-Couchard M. Neonatal lenticulostriate vasculopathy. Mid and longterm outcome (70 cases). Arch Pediatr. 2004;11:18–23.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eltohami EA, Robida A. Arteriovenous malformation of the vein of Galen in a newborn diagnosed with color Doppler examination–a case report. Angiology. 1992;43:443–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Enzmann DR, Britt RH, Lyons B, Carroll B, Wilson DA, Buxton J. High-resolution ultrasound evaluation of experimental brain abscess evolution: comparison with computed tomography and neuropathology. Radiology. 1982;142:95–102.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Epelman M, Daneman A, Kellenberger CJ. Neonatal encephalopathy: a prospective comparison of head US and MRI. Pediatr Radiol. 2010;40:1640–50.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fariello G, Malena S, Lucigrai G, Toma P. Hemimegalencephaly: early sonographic pattern. Pediatr Radiol. 1993;23:151–2.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandez Alvarez JR, Amess PN, Gandhi RS, Rabe H. Diagnostic value of subependymal pseudocysts and choroid plexus cysts on neonatal cerebral ultrasound: a meta-analysis. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2009;94:F443–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher RM, Cremin BJ. Lipoma of the corpus callosum: diagnosis by ultrasound and magnetic resonance. Pediatr Radiol. 1988;18:409–10.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foy P, Dubbins PA, Waldroup L, Graziani L, Goldberg BB, Berry R. Ultrasound demonstration of cerebellar hemorrhage in a neonate. J Clin Ultrasound. 1982;10:196–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gaisie G, Roberts MS, Bouldin TW, Scatliff JH. The echogenic ependymal wall in intraventricular hemorrhage: sonographic-pathologic correlation. Pediatr Radiol. 1990;20:297–300.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gedikbasi A, Yildrim G, Saygi S, Arslan O, Gul A, Ceylan Y. J Clin Ultrasound. 2009;37:467–70.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ghazi-Birry HS, Brown WR, Moody DM, Challa VR, Block SM, Reboussin DM. Human germinal matrix: venous origin of hemorrhage and vascular characteristics. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1997;18:219–29.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gilles FH, Murphy SF. Perinatal telencephalic leucoencephalopathy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1969;32:404–13.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Glasier CM, Seibert JJ, Chadduck WM, Williamson SL, Leithiser Jr RE. Brain death in infants: evaluation with Doppler US. Radiology. 1989;172:377–80.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goh D, Minns RA. Cerebral blood flow velocity monitoring in pyogenic meningitis. Arch Dis Child. 1993;68:111–9.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goh D, Minns RA. Intracranial pressure and cerebral arterial flow velocity indices in childhood hydrocephalus: current review. Childs Nerv Syst. 1995;11:392–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodwin L, Quisling RG. The neonatal cisterna magna: ultrasonic evaluation. Radiology. 1983;149:691–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gosalakkal JA. Intracranial arachnoid cysts in children: a review of pathogenesis, clinical features and management. Pediatr Neurol. 2002;26:93–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gould SJ, Howard S, Hope PL, Reynolds EO. Periventricular intraparenchymal cerebral haemorrhage in preterm infants: the role of venous infarction. J Pathol. 1987;151:197–202.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Govaert P, De Vries LS. An atlas of neonatal brain sonography. London: Mac Keith Press; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  • Govaert P, Achten E, Vanhaesebrouck P, De Praeter C, Van Damme J. Deep cerebral venous thrombosis in thalamo-ventricular hemorrhage of the term newborn. Pediatr Radiol. 1992;22:123–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grant EG, Schellinger D, Richardson JD, Coffey ML, Smirniotopoulous JG. Echogenic periventricular halo: normal sonographic finding or neonatal cerebral hemorrhage. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1983;140:793–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grant EG, Williams AL, Schellinger D, Slovis TL. Intracranial calcification in the infant and neonate: evaluation by sonography and CT. Radiology. 1985;157:63–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grant EG, White EM, Schellinger D, Choyke PL, Sarcone AL. Cranial duplex sonography of the infant. Radiology. 1987;163:177–85.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Groenhout CM, Gooskens RH, Veiga-Pires JA, Ramos L, Willemse J, van Nieuwenhuizen O. Value of sagittal sonography and direct sagittal CT of the Dandy-Walker syndrome. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1984;5:476–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guermazi A, de Kerviler E, Zagdanski JF. Diagnostic imaging of choroid plexus disease. Clin Radiol. 2000;55:503–16.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guzzetta F, Shackelford GD, Volpe S, Perlman JM, Volpe JJ. Periventricular intraparenchymal echodensities in the premature newborn: critical determinant of neurologic outcome. Pediatrics. 1986;78:995–1006.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Han BK, Babcock DS, Oestreich AE. Sonography of brain tumors in infants. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1984;143:31–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Han BK, Babcock DS, McAdams L. Bacterial meningitis in infants: sonographic findings. Radiology. 1985;154:645–50.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hanigan WC, Powell FC, Miller TC, Wright RM. Symptomatic intracranial hemorrhage in full-term infants. Childs Nerv Syst. 1995;11:698–707.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heck S, Schindler T, Smith J. Evaluation of neonatal regional cerebral perfusion using power Doppler and the index fractional moving blood volume. Neonatology. 2012;101:254–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Helmke K, Winkler P. Sonographically determined normal values of the intracranial ventricular system in the first year of life. Monatsschr Kinderheilkd. 1987;135:148–52.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herman TE, Siegel MJ. Neurosonographic abnormalities in chromosomal disorders. Pediatr Radiol. 1991;21:398–401.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hernanz-Schulman M, Cohen W, Genieser NB. Sonography of cerebral infarction in infancy. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1988;150:897–902.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holling EE, Leviton A. Characteristics of cranial ultrasound white-matter echolucencies that predict disability: a review. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1999;41:136–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Horgan JG, Rumack CM, Hay T, Manco-Johnson ML, Merenstein GB, Esola C. Absolute intracranial blood-flow velocities evaluated by duplex Doppler sonography in asymptomatic preterm and term neonates. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1989;152:1059–64.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huang CC. Sonographic cerebral sulcal development in premature newborns. Brain Dev. 1991;13:27–31.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huang CC, Shen EY. Tentorial subdural hemorrhage in term newborns: ultrasonographic diagnosis and clinical correlates. Pediatr Neurol. 1991;7:171–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huang CC, Yeh TF. Assessment of gestational age in newborns by neurosonography. Early Hum Dev. 1991;25:209–20.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huang CC, Ho MY, Shen EY. Sonographic changes in a parasagittal cerebral lesion in an asphyxiated newborn. J Clin Ultrasound. 1987;15:68–70.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes P, Weinberger E, Shaw DW. Linear areas of echogenicity in the thalami and basal ganglia of neonates: an expanded association. Work in progress. Radiology. 1991;179:103–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ilves P, Talvik R, Talvik T. Changes in Doppler ultrasonography in asphyxiated term infants with hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy. Acta Paediatr. 1998;87:680–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kazam E, Rudelli R, Monte W, Rubenstein WA, Ramirez de Arellano E, Kairam R, Paneth N. Sonographic diagnosis of cisternal subarachnoid hemorrhage in the premature infant. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1994;15:1009–20.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keller MS, DiPietro MA, Teele RL, White SJ, Chawla HS, Curtis-Cohen M, Blane CE. Periventricular cavitations in the first week of life. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1987;8:291–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim YJ, Kim IO, Cheon JE, Lim YJ, Kim WS, Yeon KM. Sonographic features of sinus pericranii in 4 pediatric patients. J Ultrasound Med. 2011;30:411–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kiphuth IC, Huttner HB, Struffer T. Sonographic monitoring of ventricle enlargement in posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus. Neurology. 2011;76:858–62.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kriss VM, Kriss TC. Doppler sonographic confirmation of thalamic and basal ganglia vasculopathy in three infants with trisomy 13. J Ultrasound Med. 1996;15:523–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuban KC, Teele RL, Wallman J. Septo-optic-dysplasia-schizencephaly. Radiographic and clinical features. Pediatr Radiol. 1989;19:145–50.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lacey DJ, Terplan K. Intraventricular hemorrhage in full-term neonates. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1982;24:332–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lam AH. Doppler imaging of superior sagittal sinus thrombosis. J Ultrasound Med. 1995;14:41–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lam AH, Cruz GB. Ultrasound evaluation of subdural haematoma. Australas Radiol. 1991;35:330–2.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lam A, Cruz GB, Johnson I. Extradural hematoma in neonates. J Ultrasound Med. 1991;10:205–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levene MI. Measurement of the growth of the lateral ventricles in preterm infants with real-time ultrasound. Arch Dis Child. 1981;56:900–4.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levene MI, Fenton AC, Evans DH, Archer LN, Shortland DB, Gibson NA. Severe birth asphyxia and abnormal cerebral blood-flow velocity. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1989;31:427–34.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Libicher M, Troger J. US measurement of the subarachnoid space in infants: normal values. Radiology. 1992;184:749–51.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lin KL, Wang HS, Lui TN. Sonographic diagnosis of a corpus callosum lipoma with extracranial extension in an infant. J Ultrasound Med. 1995;14:537–41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lowe LH, Bailey Z. State-of-the-art cranial sonography. Part I. Modern techniques and image interpretation. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2011a;196:1028–33.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lowe HL, Bailey Z. State-of-the art cranial sonography. Part 2. Pitfalls and variants. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2011b;196:1034–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lu JH, Emons D, Kowalewski S. Connatal periventricular pseudocysts in the neonate. Pediatr Radiol. 1992;22:55–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luna JA, Goldstein RB. Sonographic visualization of neonatal posterior fossa abnormalities through the posterolateral fontanelle. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2000;174:561–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Makhoul IR, Eisenstein I, Sujov P, Soudack M, Smolkin T, Tamir A, Epelman M. Neonatal lenticulostriate vasculopathy: further characterisation. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2003;88:F410–4.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mandiwanza T, Saidlear C, Caird J. The open fontanelle: a window to less radiation. Childs Nerv Syst. 2013;29:1177–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mansour H, Veyrac C. Couture A [Role of cerebral echography in the diagnosis of aneurysms of the vein of Galen]. Neurochirurgie. 1987;33:345–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy LK, Donoghue V, Murphy JF. Ultrasonically detectable cerebellar haemorrhage in preterm infants. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2011;96:F281–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLean G, Coombs P, Sehgal A. Measurements of the lateral ventricles in the neonatal head: comparison of 2-d and 3-d techniques. Ultrasound Med Biol. 2012;262:224–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • McMenamin JB, Volpe JJ. Doppler ultrasonography in the determination of neonatal brain death. Ann Neurol. 1983;14:302–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meila D, Lisseck K, Jacobs C, Lanfermann H, Brassel F, Feldkamp A. Cranial Doppler ultrasound in Vein of Galen malformation. Neuroradiology. 2015;57:211–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mercuri E, He J, Curati WL, Dubowitz LM, Cowan FM, Bydder GM. Cerebellar infarction and atrophy in infants and children with a history of premature birth. Pediatr Radiol. 1997;27:139–43.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mito T, Ando Y, Takeshita K, Takada K, Takashima S. Ultrasonographical and morphological examination of subependymal cystic lesions in maturely born infants. Neuropediatrics. 1989;20:211–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Montoya F, Couture A, Frerebeau P. Bonnet H [Intraventricular hemorrhage in the newborn infant at term: thalamic origin]. Pediatrie. 1987;42:205–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mott SH, Bodensteiner JB, Allan WC. The cavum septi pellucidi in term and preterm newborn infants. J Child Neurol. 1992;7:35–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Motte J, Gomes H, Morville P, Cymbalista M. Sonographic diagnosis of lissencephaly. Pediatr Radiol. 1987;17:362–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mullaart RA, Daniels O, Hopman JC, Krijgsman JB, Kollee LA, Rotteveel JJ, Stoelinga GB, Slooff JL, Thijssen HO. Ultrasound detection of congenital arteriovenous aneurysm of the great cerebral vein of Galen. Eur J Pediatr. 1982;139:195–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Naidich TP, Gusnard DA, Yousefzadeh DK. Sonography of the internal capsule and basal ganglia in infants: 1. Coronal sections. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1985;6:909–17.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Naidich TP, Yousefzadeh DK, Gusnard DA. Sonography of the normal neonatal head. Supratentorial structures: state-of-the-art imaging. Neuroradiology. 1986a;28:408–27.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Naidich TP, Yousefzadeh DK, Gusnard DA, Naidich JB. Sonography of the internal capsule and basal ganglia in infants. Part II. Localization of pathologic processes in the sagittal section through the caudothalamic groove. Radiology. 1986b;161:615–21.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Naidich TP, Grant JL, Altman N, Zimmerman RA, Birchansky SB, Braffman B, Daniel JL. The developing cerebral surface. Preliminary report on the patterns of sulcal and gyral maturation – anatomy, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging. Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 1994;4:201–40.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nakajima Y, Yano S, Kuramatsu T, Ichihashi K, Miyao M, Yanagisawa M, Itoh K. Ultrasonographic evaluation of cavum septi pellucidi and cavum Vergae. Brain Dev. 1986;8:505–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Netanyahu I, Grant EG. Prominent choroid plexus in meningomyelocele: sonographic findings. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1986;7:317–21.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Newlin NS, Seeger JF, Stuck KJ. Vein of Galen aneurysm – diagnosis by real-time ultrasound. J Can Assoc Radiol. 1981;32:224–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nickerson JP, Richner B, Santy K. Neuroimaging of pediatric intracranial infection. Part 2. TORCH, viral, fungal, and parasitic infections. J Neuroimaging. 2012;22:e52–63.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nowell M. Ultrasound evaluation of septo-optic dysplasia in the new born. Report of a case. Neuroradiology. 1986;28:491–2.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Okten A, Ahmetoglu A, Dilber E, Dinc H, Kalyoncu M, Ciftcibais K, Yaris N. Cranial Doppler ultrasonography as a predictor of neurologic sequelae in infants with bacterial meningitis. Invest Radiol. 2002;37:86–90.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Orman G, Benson JE, Kweldam C, Bosemani T, Tekes A, de Jong MR. Neonatal head ultrasonography today: a powerful imaging tool. J Neuroimaging. 2015;25:31–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paneth N, Rudelli R, Monte W, Rodriguez E, Pinto J, Kairam R, Kazam E. White matter necrosis in very low birth weight infants: neuropathologic and ultrasonographic findings in infants surviving six days or longer. J Pediatr. 1990;116:975–84.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Papile LA, Burstein J, Burstein R, Koffler H. Incidence and evolution of subependymal and intraventricular hemorrhage: a study of infants with birth weights less than 1,500 gm. J Pediatr. 1978;92:529–34.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patel AC, Cohen HL, Hotson GC. US case of the day. Open-lip schizencephaly with an area of heterotopic gray matter and associated absence of the septa pellucida. Radiographics. 1997;17:236–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pedespan JM, Chateil JF, Pedespan-Joly L, Fontan D, Demarquez JL, Guillard JM. Superior sagittal sinus thrombosis in children during the first year of life: clinical aspects, imaging and development. Arch Pediatr. 1996;3:561–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pellicer A, Cabanas F, Perez-Higueras A, Garcia-Alix A, Quero J. Neural migration disorders studied by cerebral ultrasound and colour Doppler flow imaging. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 1995;73:F55–61.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perlman JM, McMenamin JB, Volpe JJ. Fluctuating cerebral blood-flow velocity in respiratory-distress syndrome. Relation to the development of intraventricular hemorrhage. N Engl J Med. 1983a;309:204–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perlman JM, Nelson JS, McAlister WH, Volpe JJ. Intracerebellar hemorrhage in a premature newborn: diagnosis by real-time ultrasound and correlation with autopsy findings. Pediatrics. 1983b;71:159–62.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perlman JM, Rollins N, Burns D, Risser R. Relationship between periventricular intraparenchymal echodensities and germinal matrix-intraventricular hemorrhage in the very low birth weight neonate. Pediatrics. 1993;91:474–80.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perry RN, Bowman ED, Murton LJ, Roy RN, de Crespigny LC. Ventricular size in newborn infants. J Ultrasound Med. 1985;4:475–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pierre-Kahn A, Renier D, Sainte-Rose C, Flandin C. Hirsch JF [Acute intracranial hematoma in neonates at term. Apropos of 17 cases]. Ann Pediatr (Paris). 1985;32:419–25.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Poland RL, Slovis TL, Shankaran S. Normal values for ventricular size as determined by real time sonographic techniques. Pediatr Radiol. 1985;15:12–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Puvabanditsin S, Garrow E, Applewhite L, Akpalu D, Quizon MC. Intracranial lipomas in neonate. J Perinatol. 2002;22:414–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rademaker KJ, De Vries LS, Barth PG. Subependymal pseudocysts: ultrasound diagnosis and findings at follow-up. Acta Paediatr. 1993;82:394–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raets MM, Sol JJ, Govaert P, Lequin MH, Reiss IK, Kroon AA, Appel IM, Dudink J. Serial cranial US for detection of cerebral sinovenous thrombosis in preterm infants. Radiology. 2013;269:879–86.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ramirez RE. Sonographic recognition of lissencephaly (agyria). AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1984;5:830–1.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reeder JD, Sanders RC. Ventriculitis in the neonate: recognition by sonography. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1983;4:37–41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reinacher PC, van Velthoven V. Intraoperative ultrasound imaging: practical applicability as a real-time navigation system. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 2003;85:89–93.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Riccabona M. Neurosonography in neonates, infants and children. In: Riccabona M, editor. Pediatric ultrasound: requisites and applications. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer; 2014. p. 77–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riebel T, Nasir R, Weber K. Choroid plexus cysts: a normal finding on ultrasound. Pediatr Radiol. 1992;22:410–2.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rorke LB. Anatomical features of the developing brain implicated in pathogenesis of hypoxic-ischemic injury. Brain Pathol. 1992;2:211–21.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg HK, Levine RS, Stoltz K, Smith DR. Bacterial meningitis in infants: sonographic features. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1983;4:822–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenfeld DL, Schonfeld SM, Underberg-Davis S. Coarctation of the lateral ventricles: an alternative explanation for subependymal pseudocysts. Pediatr Radiol. 1997;27:895–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rupprecht T, Lauffer K, Storr U, Hofbeck M, Wenzel D, Bowing B. Extra-cerebral intracranial fluid collections in childhood: differentiation between benign subarachnoid space enlargement and subdural effusion using color-coded duplex ultrasound. Klin Padiatr. 1996;208:97–102.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sanker P, Roth B, Frowein RA, Firsching R. Cerebral reperfusion in brain death of a newborn. Case report. Neurosurg Rev. 1992;15:315–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schellhas KP, Siebert RC, Heithoff KB, Franciosi RA. Congenital choroid plexus papilloma of the third ventricle: diagnosis with real-time sonography and MR imaging. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1988;9:797–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seibert JJ, Glasier CM, Leithiser RE. Transcranial Doppler using standard duplex equipment in children. Ultrasound Q. 1990;8:167–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seibert JJ, Avva R, Hronas TN, Mocharla R, Vanderzalm T, Cox K, Kinder D, Lidzy B, Knight KL. Use of power Doppler in pediatric neurosonography: a pictorial essay. Radiographics. 1998;18:879–90.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shackelford GD, Volpe JJ. Cranial ultrasonography in the evaluation of neonatal intracranial hemorrhage and its complications. J Perinat Med. 1985;13:293–304.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw DW, Cohen WA. Viral infections of the CNS in children: imaging features. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1993;160:125–33.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shen EY. The ‘bright thalamus’. Arch Dis Child. 1984;59:695.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shen EY, Huang FY. Subependymal cysts in normal neonates. Arch Dis Child. 1985;60:1072–4.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shen EY, Huang FY. Sonographic finding of ventricular asymmetry in neonatal brain. Arch Dis Child. 1989;64:730–2.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sheth RD. Trends in incidence and severity of intraventricular hemorrhage. J Child Neurol. 1998;13:261–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Siegel MJ. Brain. In: Siegel MJ, editor. Pediatric sonography. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2011. p. 43–117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siegel MJ, Shackelford GD, Perlman JM, Fulling KH. Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy in term infants: diagnosis and prognosis evaluated by ultrasound. Radiology. 1984;152:395–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simanovsky N, Taylor GA. Sonography of brain tumors in infants and young children. Pediatr Radiol. 2001;31:392–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Slovis TL, Kuhns LR. Real-time sonography of the brain through the anterior fontanelle. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1981;136:277–86.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Soudack M, Jacobson J, Raviv-Zilka L, Ben-Shlush A, Kuint J. Cerebellar haemorrhage in very low birth weight premature infants: the advantage of the postero-lateral fontanelle view. J Clin Ultrasound. 2013;41:395–401.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stark JE, Seibert JJ. Cerebral artery Doppler ultrasonography for prediction of outcome after perinatal asphyxia. J Ultrasound Med. 1994;13:595–600.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steggerda SJ, de Bruine FT, Smits-Wintjens VE, Walther FJ, van Wezel-Meijler G. Ultrasound detection of posterior fossa abnormalities in full term neonates. Early Hum Dev. 2012;88:233–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stockberger S, Smith R, Don S. Color Doppler sonography as a primary diagnostic tool in the diagnosis of vein of Galen aneurysm in a critically ill neonate. Neuroradiology. 1993;35:616–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sudakoff GS, Mitchell DG, Stanley C, Graziani LJ. Frontal periventricular cysts on the first day of life. A one-year clinical follow-up and its significance. J Ultrasound Med. 1991;10:25–30.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sufianov AA, Aleksandrov Iu A, Komarevskii AV, Gruzin PG, Chimytova EA, Seliverstov PV. Neurosonography in the diagnosis of brain tumors in young children. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova. 1999;99:35–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swarte R, Lequin M, Cherian P. Imaging patterns of brain injury in term-birth asphyxia. Acta Paediatr. 2009;98:586–92.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Szymonowicz W, Schafler K, Cussen LJ, Yu VY. Ultrasound and necropsy study of periventricular haemorrhage in preterm infants. Arch Dis Child. 1984;59:637–42.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Takashima S, Tanaka K. Development of cerebrovascular architecture and its relationship to periventricular leukomalacia. Arch Neurol. 1978;35:11–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Takashima S, Mito T, Ando Y. Pathogenesis of periventricular white matter hemorrhages in preterm infants. Brain Dev. 1986;8:25–30.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tatsuno M, Uchida K, Okuyama K, Kawauchi A. Color Doppler flow imaging of CSF flow in an infant with intraventricular hemorrhage. Brain Dev. 1992;14:110–3.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tatsuno M, Hasegawa M, Okuyama K. Ventriculitis in infants: diagnosis by color Doppler flow imaging. Pediatr Neurol. 1993;9:127–30.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor GA. Alterations in regional cerebral blood flow in neonatal stroke: preliminary findings with color Doppler sonography. Pediatr Radiol. 1994;24:111–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor GA. Effect of germinal matrix hemorrhage on terminal vein position and patency. Pediatr Radiol. 1995;25 Suppl 1:S37–40.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor GA. New concepts in the pathogenesis of germinal matrix intraparenchymal hemorrhage in premature infants. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1997;18:231–2.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor GA. Doppler of the neonatal and infant brain. In: Rumack CM, Wilson SR, Charboneau JW, editors. Diagnostic ultrasound. St.Louis: Mosby; 1998. p. 1503–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor GA, Madsen JR. Neonatal hydrocephalus: hemodynamic response to fontanelle compression– correlation with intracranial pressure and need for shunt placement. Radiology. 1996;201:685–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Teele RL, Hernanz-Schulman M, Sotrel A. Echogenic vasculature in the basal ganglia of neonates: a sonographic sign of vasculopathy. Radiology. 1988;169:423–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tessler FN, Dion J, Vinuela F, Perrella RR, Duckwiler G, Hall T, Boechat MI, Grant EG. Cranial arteriovenous malformations in neonates: color Doppler imaging with angiographic correlation. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1989;153:1027–30.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Toma P, Magnano GM, Mezzano P, Lazzini F, Bonacci W, Serra G. Cerebral ultrasound images in prenatal cytomegalovirus infection. Neuroradiology. 1989;31:278–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Toma P, Lucigrai G, Tortori DP. Prenatal US detection of cerebral ventricular enlargement in a case of tuberous sclerosis. Radiol Med. 1997;93:774–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Trounce JQ, Dodd KL, Fawer CL, Fielder AR, Punt J, Levene MI. Primary thalamic haemorrhage in the newborn: a new clinical entity. Lancet. 1985;1:190–2.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Unsgaard G, Gronningsaeter A, Ommedal S, Nagelhus Hernes TA. Brain operations guided by real-time two-dimensional ultrasound: new possibilities as a result of improved image quality. Neurosurgery. 2002;51:402–11.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Wezel-Meijler G, Steggerda SJ, Leijsler LM. Cranial ultrasonography in neonates: role and limitations. Semin Perinatol. 2010;34:28–38.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Veyrac C, Couture A, Baud C. Posterior fossa cystic malformations: ultrasonic approach. Ann Radiol (Paris). 1986;29:353–62.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Volpe JJ. Intraventricular hemorrhage and brain injury in the premature infant. Diagnosis, prognosis, and prevention. Clin Perinatol. 1989;16:387–411.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volpe JJ. Brain injury in the premature infant. Neuropathology, clinical aspects, pathogenesis, and prevention. Clin Perinatol. 1997;24:567–87.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volpe JJ. Brain injury in the premature infant: overview of clinical aspects, neuropathology, and pathogenesis. Semin Pediatr Neurol. 1998;5:135–51.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volpe JJ. Neurology of the newborn. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang HS, Kuo MF. Sonographic lenticulostriate vasculopathy in infancy with tic and other neuropsychiatric disorders developed after 7 to 9 years of follow-up. Brain Dev. 2003;25 Suppl 1:S43–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang HS, Kuo MF, Chang TC. Sonographic lenticulostriate vasculopathy in infants: some associations and a hypothesis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1995;16:97–102.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Westra SJ, Curran JG, Duckwiler GR, Zaninovic A, Hall TR, Martin NA, Boechat MI, Vinuela F. Pediatric intracranial vascular malformations: evaluation of treatment results with color Doppler US. Work in progress. Radiology. 1993;186:775–83.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • White BD, Bis KG, Cacciarelli AA, Madrazo BL. Ultrasound case of the day. Arteriovenous malformation (AVM) of the vein of Galen. Radiographics. 1992;12:396–400.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Winkler P. Colour-coded echographic flow imaging and spectral analysis of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in meningitis and hemorrhage. Part I. Clinical evidence. Pediatr Radiol. 1992;22:24–30.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Winkler P, Helmke K. Major pitfalls in Doppler investigations with particular reference to the cerebral vascular system. Part I. Sources of error, resulting pitfalls and measures to prevent errors. Pediatr Radiol. 1990;20:219–28.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wong WS, Tsuruda JS, Liberman RL, Chirino A, Vogt JF, Gangitano E. Color Doppler imaging of intracranial vessels in the neonate. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1989;152:1065–70.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Worthen NJ, Gilbertson V, Lau C. Cortical sulcal development seen on sonography: relationship to gestational parameters. J Ultrasound Med. 1986;5:153–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yamashita Y, Matsuishi T, Murakami Y, Shoji H, Hashimoto T, Utsunomiya H, Araki H. Neuroimaging findings (ultrasonography, CT, MRI) in 3 infants with congenital rubella syndrome. Pediatr Radiol. 1991;21:547–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yikilmaz A, Taylor GA. Cranial sonography in term and near-term infants. Pediatr Radiol. 2008;38:605–16.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zamora C, Tekes A, Alqathtani E, Kalayci OT, Northington F, Huisman TA. Variability of resistive indices in the anterior cerebral artery during fontanel compression in preterm and term neonates measured by transcranial duplex sonography. J Perinatol. 2014;34:306–10.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zorzi C, Angonese I. Subependymal pseudocysts in the neonate. Eur J Pediatr. 1989;148:462–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Service of Radiology, IRCCS Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesú, Vatican City, Rome

    Paolo Tomà

  2. Service of Radiology, IRCCS Istituto Giannina Gaslini, Genova, 16147, Italy

    Claudio Granata

Authors
  1. Paolo Tomà
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Claudio Granata
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Neuroradiology, G Gaslini Children's Hospital, Genoa, Italy

    Andrea Rossi

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this entry

Cite this entry

Tomà, P., Granata, C. (2015). Brain Sonography. In: Rossi, A. (eds) Pediatric Neuroradiology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-46258-4_56-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-46258-4_56-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-662-46258-4

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference MedicineReference Module Medicine

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation