Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Child Abuse: Imaging Findings

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
Pediatric Neuroradiology

  • 72 Accesses

Abstract

In patients who are too young to speak for themselves, radiology plays a crucial role for establishing the diagnosis and preventing the recurrence of abusive head trauma (AHT). In children younger than 2 years, and particularly in the first year of life, AHT is the main cause of fatal head injuries. Findings in AHT are multiple and heterogeneous, including evidence of severe intracranial and spinal involvement, complex retinal hemorrhages, and skeletal fractures that are not compatible with the provided clinical history in a young, severely ill child (Choudhary et al. 2018). Nevertheless, findings are often banalized as a so-called “triad” of acute encephalopathy with massive cerebral edema, subdural hematomas (SDH), and retinal hemorrhages (RH); such “triad” is in fact a straw man terminology used in court proceedings by those who are skeptical of AHT and is not endorsed by any professional organization (Choudhary et al. 2018). Neuroradiological findings resulting from traumatic mechanisms, if considered without the clinical context, cannot often distinguish AHT from accidental head injury or from predisposing or complicating medical conditions that mimic AHT. The child’s immature and unmyelinated brain responds differently to stress than a fully developed brain and is more susceptible to injury. Computed tomography (CT) and conventional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have shown great effectiveness in revealing acute and chronic hemorrhagic lesions and diffuse encephalopathy associated with AHT, but they often lack the ability to detect the extent of the microstructural injuries of the white matter, which are not associated with hemorrhage or edema. In younger patients, injury to the developing brain can prevent proper formation of neural networks and hinder cognitive function in the mature brain. For an appropriate assessment of the brain damage and its proper treatment as well as helping to define the clinical outcome, advanced MR techniques (DTI, SWI, MRS) may prove very useful.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Acres MJ, Morris JA. The pathogenesis of retinal and subdural haemorrhage in non-accidental head injury in infancy: assessment using Bradford Hill criteria. Med Hypothesis. 2014;82(1):1–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alexander R, Sato Y, Smith W, Bennet T. Incidence of impact trauma with cranial injuries ascribed to shaking. Am J Dis Child. 1990;144(6):724–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alsabban Z, et al. Utility of skull views in skeletal surveys of children with suspected non-accidental injury who are also undergoing head CT. Abstracts 60th annual meeting of the Society for Pediatric Radiology. The Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials. 2017;47(10):118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barber I, Kleinman PK. Imaging of skeletal injures associated with abusive head trauma. Pediatr Radiol. 2014;44(Suppl 4):613–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barbosa JH, Santos AC, Salmon CE. Susceptibility weighted images: differentiating between calcification and hemosiderin. Radiol Bras. 2015;48(2):93–100.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Barlow KM, Minns RA. Annual incidence of shaken impact syndrome in young children. Lancet. 2000;356(9241):1571–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barlow KM, Gibson RJ, McPhillips M, Minns RA. Magnetic resonance imaging in acute non-accidental head injury. Acta Paediatr. 1999;88:734–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnes PD, Robson CD. CT findings in hyperacute nonaccidental brain injury. Pediatr Radiol. 2000;30:74–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bernardi B, Zimmerman RA, Bilaniuk LT. Neuroradiologic evaluation of pediatric craniocerebral trauma. Top Magn Reson Imaging. 1993;5:161–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biousse V, Suh DY, Newman NJ, Davis PC, Mapstone T, Lambert SR. Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging in shaken baby syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 2002;133(2):249–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bonnier C, Nassogne MC, Evrard P. Outcome and prognosis of whiplash shaken infant syndrome; late consequences after a symptom-free interval. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1995;37(11):943–56.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bortolotti C, Wang H, Fraser K, Lanzino G. Subacute spinal subdural hematoma after spontaneous resolution of cranial subdural hematoma: causal relationship or coincidence? J Neurosurg. 2004;100(4 Suppl Spine):372–4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bradford R, Choudhary AK, Dias MS. Serial neuroimaging in infants with abusive head trauma: timing abusive injuries. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2013;12:110–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brooks WM, Friedman SD, Gasparovich C. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy in traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2001;16:149–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burkhart ZN, Thurber CJ, Chuang AZ, Kumar KS, Davis GH, Kellaway J. Risk factors associated with retinal hemorrhage in suspected abusive head trauma. J AAPOS. 2015;19(2):119–23.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Byard RW, Blumbergs P, Rutty G, Spernhake J, Banner J, Krous HF. Lack of evidence for a causal relationship between hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy and subdural hemorrhage in fetal life, infancy and early childhood. Pediatr Dev Pathol. 2007;10:348–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caffey J. Multiple fractures in the long bones of infants suffering from chronic subdural haematoma. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1946;56:163–73.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Caffey J. On the theory and practice of shaking infants. Its potential residual effects of permanent brain damage and mental retardation. Am J Dis Child. 1972;124(2):161–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caffey J. The whiplash shaken baby syndrome: manual shaking by the extremities with whiplash induced intracranial and intraocular bleedings, linked with residual permanent brain damage and mental retardation. Pediatrics. 1974;54:396–403.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen CY, Zimmerman RA, Rorke LB. Neuroimaging in child abuse: a mechanism-based approach. Neuroradiology. 1999;41(10):711–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Choudhary AK, Bradford RK, Dias MS, Moore GJ, Boal DK. Spinal subdural hemorrhage in abusive head trauma: a retrospective study. Radiology. 2012;262(1):216–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Choudhary AK, Ishak R, Zacharia TT, Dias MS. Imaging of spinal injury in abusive head trauma: a retrospective study. Pediatr Radiol. 2014;44:1130–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Choudhary AK, Bradford R, Dias MS, Thamburaj K, Boal DK. Venous injury in abusive head trauma. Pediatr Radiol. 2015;45(12):1803–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Choudhary AK, Servaes S, Slovis TL, Palusci VJ, Hedlund GL, Narang SK, Moreno JA, Dias MS, Christian CW, Nelson MD Jr, Silvera VM, Palasis S, Raissaki M, Rossi A, Offiah AC. Consensus statement on abusive head trauma in infants and young children. Pediatr Radiol. 2018 Aug;48(8):1048–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Christian CW. Committee on child abuse and neglect, American academy of pediatrics. The evaluation of suspected child physical abuse. Pediatrics. 2015;135(5):1337–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Christian CW, Levin AV. Council on child abuse and neglect; section on ophthalmology; American Association of Certified Orthoptists; American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus; American Academy of Ophthalmology. The eye examination in the evaluation of child abuse. Pediatrics. 2018;142(2):e20181411.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Demaerel P, Casteels I, Wilms G. Cranial imaging in child abuse. Eur Radiol. 2002;12(4):849–57.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duhaime AC, Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE, Bruce DA, Mergulies SS, Wiser R. The shaken baby syndrome: a clinical, pathological, and biomechanical study. J Neurosurg. 1987;66(3):409–15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duhaime AC, Alario AJ, Lewander WJ, Schut L, Sutton LN, Seidl TS, Nudelman S, Budenz D, Hertle R, Tsiaras W, Loporchio S. Head injury in very young children: mechanisms, injury types, and ophthalmologic findings in 100 hospitalized patients younger than 2 years of age. Pediatrics. 1992;90:179–85.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duhaime AC, Christian CW, Rorke LB, Zimmerman RA. Nonaccidental head trauma in infants – the “shaken baby syndrome”. N Engl J Med. 1998 Jun 18;338(25):1822–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ewing-Cobbs L, Prasad M, Kramer L, Louis PT, Baumgartner J, Fletcher JM, Alpert B. Acute neuroradiologic findings in young children with inflicted or noninflicted traumatic brain injury. Childs Nerv Syst. 2000;16:25–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faul M, Xu L, Wald MM, Coronado VG. Traumatic brain injury in the United States: emergency department visit, hospitalizations and deaths 2002–206. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control; 2010.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Feldman KW, Sugar NF, Browd SR. Initial clinical presentation of children with acute and chronic versus acute subdural hemorrhage resulting from abusive head trauma. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2015;16:177–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Finkelhor D, Jones L. Have sexual abuse and physical abuse declined since the 1990s? Durham: Crimes Against Children Research Center; 2012.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Geddes JF, Whitwell HL. Inflicted head injury in infants. Forensic Sci Int. 2004;146:83–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geddes JF, Hackshaw AK, Vowles GH, Nickols CD, Whitwell HL. Neuropathology of inflicted head injury in children. I pattern of brain injury. Brain. 2001a;124:1290–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geddes JF, Vowles GH, Hackshaw AK, Nickols CD, Scott IS, Whitwell HL. Neuropathology of inflicted head injury in children. II microscopic brain injury in infants. Brain. 2001b;124:1299–306.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geddes JF, Hackshaw AK TRC, Nickols CD, Adams GG, Whitwell HL, et al. Dural haemorrhage in non-traumatic infant deaths: does it explain the bleeding in “shaken baby syndrome?”. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol. 2003;29(1):14–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE, Adams JH, Graham DI, Thompson CJ, Marcincin RP. Diffuse axonal injury and traumatic coma in the primate. Ann Neurol. 1982;12:564–74.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert R, Widom CS, Browne K, Fergusson D, Webb E, Janson S. Burden and consequences of child maltreatment in high-income countries. Lancet. 2009;373:68–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein B, Kelly MM, Bruton D, Cox C. Inflicted versus accidental head injury. Crit Care Med. 1993;21(9):1328–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Governale LS, Brink FW, Pluto CP, Schunemann VA, Weber R, Rusin J, Fischer BA, Lerson MM. A retrospective study of cervical spine MRI findings in children with abusive head trauma. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2018;53(1):36–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grossman RI, Gomori JM, Goldberg HI, Hackney DB, Atlas SW, Kemp SS, Zimmerman RA, Bilaniuk LT. MR imaging of hemorrhagic conditions of the head and neck. Radiographics. 1988;8:441–54.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haacke EM, Mittal S, Wu Z, Neelavalli J, Cheng YJ. Susceptibility weighted imaging: technical aspects and clinical applications, part 1. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2009;30:19–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hahn YS, Raimondi AJ, McLone DG, Yamanouchi Y. Traumatic mechanism of head injury in child abuse. Childs Brain. 1983;10:229–41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hahnemann ML, Kinner S, Schweiger B, Bajanowski T, Karger B, Pfeiffer H, Wittschieber D. Imaging of bridging vein thrombosis in infants with abusive head trauma: the “tadpole sign”. Eur Radiol. 2015;25(2):299–305.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Helfer RF, Slovis TL, Blank M. Injuries resulting when small children fall out of bed. Pediatrics. 1977;60:533–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Henry KM, Wood JN. Variation in advanced cervical spine imaging in abusive head trauma: an update on recent literature and future directions. Acad Pediatr. 2018;18(7):733–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hobbs CJ. Skull fractures and diagnosis of child abuse. Arch Dis Child. 1984;59:246–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hodel J, Aboukais R, Dutouquet B, Kalsoum E, Benadjaoud MA, Chechin D, Zins M, Rahmouni A, Luciani A, Pruvo JP, Lejeune JP, Leclerc X. Double inversion recovery MR sequence for the detection of subacute subarachnoid hemorrhage. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2015;36(2):251–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Holshouser BA, Ashwal S, Luh GY, Shu S, Kahlon S, Auld KL, Tomasi LG, Perkin RM, Hinshaw DB Jr, Proton MR. Spectroscopy after acute central nervous system injury: outcome prediction in neonates, infants, and children. Radiology. 1997;202:487–96.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hwang M, Shin SS, Thimm MA, Ghodadr A, Sylvester CL, Nischal K. Apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) of the vitreous humor and susceptibility weighted imaging (SWI) of the retina in abused children with retinal hemorrhages. Clin Imaging. 2017;44:38–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hymel KP, Rumack CM, Hay TC, Strain JD, Jenny C. Comparison of intracranial computed tomographic (CT) findings in pediatric abusive and accidental head trauma. Pediatr Radiol. 1997;27:743–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ibrahim NG, Wood J, Margulies SS, Christian CW. Influence of age and fall type on head injuries in infants and toddlers. Int J Dev Neurosci. 2012;30(3):201–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Imagawa KK, Hamilton A, Ceschin R, Tokar E, Pham P, Bluml S, Wisnowski J, Panigraphy A. Characterization of microstructural injury: a novel approach in infant abusive head trauma – initial experience. J Neurotrauma. 2014;31:1632–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Jacob R, Cox M, Koral K, Greenwell C, Xi Y, Vinson L, Reeder K, Weprin B, Huang R, Booth TN. MR imaging of the cervical spine in nonaccidental trauma: a tertiary institution experience. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2016;37(10):1944–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Jaspan T. Current controversies in the interpretation of non-accidental head injury. Pediatr Radiol. 2008;38(Suppl 3):S378–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jenny C, Hymel KP, Ritzen A, Reinert SE, Hay TC. Analysis of missed cases of abusive head trauma. JAMA. 1999;281(7):621–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kadom N, Khademian Z, Vezina G, Shalaby Rana E, Rice A, Hinds T. Usefulness of MRI detection of cervical spine and brain injuries in the evaluation of abusive head trauma. Pediatr Radiol. 2014;44:839–48.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keenan HT, Runyan DK, Marshall SW, Nocera MA, Merten DF, Sinal SH. A population-based study of inflicted traumatic brain injury in young children. JAMA. 2003;290(5):621–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kemp AM, Jaspan T, Griffiths J, Stoodley N, Mann MK, Tempest V, Maguire SA. Neuroimaging: what neuroradiological features distinguish abusive from non-abusive head trauma? A systematic review. Arch Dis Child. 2011;96(12):1103–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kempe CH, Silverman FN, Steele BF, Droegemueller W, Silver HK. The battered-child syndrome. JAMA. 1962;181:17–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kleinman PK, editor. Diagnostic imaging of child abuse. New York: Mosby Year Book; 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koumellis P, McConachie NS, Jaspan T. Spinal subdural haematomas in children with non-accidental head injury. Arch Dis Child. 2009;94(3):216–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kralik SF, Yasrebi M, Supakul N, Lin C, Netter LG, Hicks RA, Hibbard RA, Ackerman LL, Harris ML, Ho CY. Diagnostic performance of ultrafast brain MRI for evaluation of abusive head trauma. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2017;38(4):807–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Levin AV. Retinal hemorrhage in abusive head trauma. Pediatrics. 2010;126(5):961–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maguire SA, Watts PO, Shaw AD, Holden S, Taylor RH, Watkins WJ, Mann MK, Tempest V, Kemp AM. Retinal haemorrhages and related findings in abusive and non-abusive head trauma: a systematic review. Eye. 2013;27:28–36.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matschke J, Büttner A, Bergmann M, Hagel C, Püschel K, Glatze M. Encephalopathy and death in infants with abusive head trauma is due to hypoxic-ischemic injury following local brain trauma to vital brainstem centers. Int J Legal Med. 2015;129(1):105–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McPhillips M. Non-accidental head injury in the young infant. In: Rutherford M, editor. MRI of the neonatal brain. London: WB Saunders; 2002. p. 261–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mittal S, Wu Z, Neelavalli J, Haacke EM. Susceptibility weighted imaging: technical aspects and clinical applications, part 2. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2009;30:232–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Muni RH, Kohly RP, Sohn EH, Lee TC. Hand-held spectral domain optical coherence tomography finding in shaken-baby syndrome. Retina. 2010;30:45–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Narang S, Clarke J. Abusive head trauma: past, present, and future. J Child Neurol. 2014 Dec;29(12):1747–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ommaya AK, Gennarelli TA. Cerebral concussion and traumatic unconsciousness: correlation of experimental and clinical observations on blunt head injuries. Brain. 1974;97:633–54.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Orman G, Tekes A, Poretti A, Robertson C, Huisman TA. Post-traumatic carotid artery dissection in children: not to be missed! J Neuroimaging. 2014;24:467–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pinto PS, Poretti A, Meoded A, Tekes A, Huisman TA. The unique features of traumatic brain injury in children. Review of the characteristics of the pediatric skull and brain, mechanisms of trauma, patterns of injury, complications and their imaging findings-part 1. J Neuroimaging. 2012a;22(2):e1–17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pinto PS, Meoded A, Poretti A, Tekes A, Huisman TA. The unique features of traumatic brain injury in children. Review of the characteristics of the pediatric skull and brain, mechanisms of trauma, patterns of injury, complications, and their imaging findings-part 2. J Neuroimaging. 2012b;22(2):e18–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Punt J, Bonshek RE, Jaspan T, McConachie NS, Punt N, Ratcliffe JM. The unified hypothesis of Geddes et al. is not supported by the data. Pediatr Rehabil. 2004;7:173–84.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rambaud C. Bridging veins and autopsy findings in abusive head trauma. Pediatr Radiol. 2015;45(8–9):1126–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rubin DM, Christian CW, Bilaniuk LT, Zazyczny KA, Durbin DR. Occult head injury in high-risk abused children. Pediatrics. 2003;111:1382–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan ME, Palasis S, Saigal G, Singer AD, Karmazyn B, Dempsey ME, Dillman JR, Dory CE, Garber M, Hayes LL, Iyer RS, Mazzola CA, Raske ME, Rice HE, Rigsby CK, Sierzenski PR, Strouse PJ, Westra SJ, Wootton-Gorges SL, Coley BD. ACR appropriateness criteria: head trauma—child. J Am Coll Radiol. 2014;11:939–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shannon P, Smith CR, Deck J, Ang LC, Ho M, Becker L. Axonal injury and the neuropathology of shaken baby syndrome. Acta Neuropathol. 1998;95(6):625–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sidpra J, Abomeli D, Hameed B, Baker J, Mankad K. Rise in the incidence of abusive head trauma during the COVID-19 pandemic. Arch Dis Child. 2021;106(3):e14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sieswerda-Hoogendoorn T, Boos S, Spivack B, Bilo RA, van Rijn RR. Educational paper: abusive head trauma, part 1: clinical aspects. Eur J Pediatr. 2012;171(3):415–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silvera VM, Danehy AR, Newton AW, Stamoulis C, Carducci C, Grant PE, Wilson CR, Kleinman PK. Retroclival collections associated with abusive head trauma in children. Pediatr Radiol. 2014;44:S621–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Squier W, Mack J, Green A, Aziz T. The pathophysiology of brain swelling associated with subdural hemorrhage: the role of the trigemino vascular system. Childs Nerv Syst. 2012;28:2005–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Suh DY, Davis PC, Hopkins KL, Fajman NN, Mapstone TB. Nonaccidental pediatric head injury: diffusion-weighted imaging findings. Neurosurgery. 2001;49:309–18.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tong KA, Ashwal S, Holshouser BA, Shutter LA, Herigault G, Haacke EM, Kido DK. Hemorrhagic shearing lesion in children and adolescents with posttraumatic diffuse axonal injury: improved detection and initial results. Radiology. 2003;227(2):332–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Verma RK, Kottke R, Andereggen L, Weisstanner C, Zubler C, Gralla J, Kiefer C, Slotboom J, Wiest R, Schroth G, Ozdoba C, El-Koussy M. Detecting subarachnoid hemorrhage: comparison of combined FLAIR/SWI versus CT. Eur J Radiol. 2013;82(9):1539–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wittschieber D, Karger B, Niederstadt T, Pfeiffer H, Hahnemann ML. Subdural hygromas in abusive head trauma: pathogenesis, diagnosis, and forensic implications. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2015;36(3):432–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wright JN. CNS injuries in abusive head trauma. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2017 May;208(5):991–1001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zuccoli G. Novel in vivo depiction of optic nerves hemorrhages in child abuse: a 3D-SWI pilot study. Neuroradiology. 2021 Jan;20. Epub ahead of print

    Google Scholar 

  • Zuccoli G, Panigrahy A, Haldipur A, Willaman D, Squires J, Wolford J, Sylvester C, Mitchell E, Lope LA, Nischal KK, Berger RP. Susceptibility weighted imaging depicts retinal hemorrhages in abusive head trauma. Neuroradiology. 2013 Jul;55(7):889–93.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zuccoli G, Khan AS, Panigrahy A, Tamber MS. In vivo demonstration of traumatic rupture of the bridging veins in abusive head trauma. Pediatr Neurol. 2017;72:31–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Neuroradiology, MF Toniolo Hospital, Bologna, Italy

    Bruno Bernardi

  2. Neuroradiology, Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù, Rome, Italy

    Bruno Bernardi

  3. Neuroradiology Unit, Department of Imaging, Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù, Rome, Italy

    Chiara Carducci

Authors
  1. Bruno Bernardi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Chiara Carducci
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Bruno Bernardi .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Neuroradiology, G Gaslini Children's Hospital, Genoa, Italy

    Andrea Rossi

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Bernardi, B., Carducci, C. (2021). Child Abuse: Imaging Findings. In: Rossi, A. (eds) Pediatric Neuroradiology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-46258-4_54-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-46258-4_54-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-662-46258-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-662-46258-4

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference MedicineReference Module Medicine

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation