Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Examining the Cortical Phenomena of Psychiatric Disorders using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Cortical Connectivity

  • 1375 Accesses

Abstract

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is used to index several neurophysiological processes including inhibition, excitability, and plasticity to better understand psychiatric illnesses. Assessing such cortical phenomena using TMS provides valuable insights into the neurobiological substrates underlying psychiatric disorders. The purpose of this chapter is to focus on TMS studies which have enhanced our understanding of schizophrenia (SCZ), major depressive disorder (MDD), bipolar disorder (BD), and obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD). Although the evidence base is still limited, research to date suggests that disorders, such as SCZ, MDD, BD, and OCD are characterized by deficits in cortical inhibition and by abnormalities in cortical excitability. In this chapter, such findings will be reviewed and their importance discussed vis à vis healthy and diseased states. We will conclude by highlighting the limitations of this literature and discuss their potential future applications for the development of biomarkers in psychiatric conditions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abarbanel JM, Lemberg T, Yaroslavski U, Grisaru N, Belmaker RH (1996) Electrophysiological responses to transcranial magnetic stimulation in depression and schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 40(2):148–150. doi: 0006322395006648 [pii]

    Google Scholar 

  • Abou-Saleh MT, Al Suhaili AR, Karim L, Prais V, Hamdi E (1999) Single photon emission tomography with 99 m Tc-HMPAO in Arab patients with depression. J Affect Disord 55(2–3):115–123

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bajbouj M, Gallinat J, Lang UE, Neu P, Niehaus L (2003) Motorcortical excitability after electroconvulsive therapy in patients with major depressive disorder. Suppl Clin Neurophysiol 56:433–440

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bajbouj M, Gallinat J, Niehaus L, Lang UE, Roricht S, Meyer BU (2004) Abnormalities of inhibitory neuronal mechanisms in the motor cortex of patients with schizophrenia. Pharmacopsychiatry 37(2):74–80. doi: 10.1055/s-2004-815529

    Google Scholar 

  • Bajbouj M, Lang UE, Niehaus L, Hellen FE, Heuser I, Neu P (2006a) Effects of right unilateral electroconvulsive therapy on motor cortical excitability in depressive patients. J Psychiatr Res 40(4):322–327. doi: S0022-3956(05)00086-5 [pii] 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2005.07.002

    Google Scholar 

  • Bajbouj M, Lisanby SH, Lang UE, Danker-Hopfe H, Heuser I, Neu P (2006b) Evidence for impaired cortical inhibition in patients with unipolar major depression. Biol Psychiatry 59(5):395–400. doi: S0006-3223(05)00925-X [pii] 10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.07.036

    Google Scholar 

  • Barker AT, Jalinous R, Freeston IL (1985) Non-invasive magnetic stimulation of human motor cortex. Lancet 1(8437):1106–1107. doi: S0140-6736(85)92413-4 [pii]

    Google Scholar 

  • Baxter LR Jr, Schwartz JM, Phelps ME, Mazziotta JC, Guze BH, Selin CE, Gerner RH, Sumida RM (1989) Reduction of prefrontal cortex glucose metabolism common to three types of depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 46(3):243–250

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Benazzi F (2007) Bipolar disorder–focus on bipolar II disorder and mixed depression. Lancet 369(9565):935–945. doi: S0140-6736(07)60453-X [pii] 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60453-X

    Google Scholar 

  • Bench CJ, Friston KJ, Brown RG, Scott LC, Frackowiak RS, Dolan RJ (1992) The anatomy of melancholia–focal abnormalities of cerebral blood flow in major depression. Psychol Med 22(3):607–615

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Benes FM, Berretta S (2001) GABAergic interneurons: implications for understanding schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 25(1):1–27. doi: S0893-133X(01)00225-1 [pii] 10.1016/S0893-133X(01)00225-1

    Google Scholar 

  • Benes FM, Kwok EW, Vincent SL, Todtenkopf MS (1998) A reduction of nonpyramidal cells in sector CA2 of schizophrenics and manic depressives. Biol Psychiatry 44(2):88–97. doi: S0006-3223(98)00138-3 [pii]

    Google Scholar 

  • Benes FM, McSparren J, Bird ED, SanGiovanni JP, Vincent SL (1991) Deficits in small interneurons in prefrontal and cingulate cortices of schizophrenic and schizoaffective patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 48(11):996–1001

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boroojerdi B, Topper R, Foltys H, Meincke U (1999) Transcallosal inhibition and motor conduction studies in patients with schizophrenia using transcranial magnetic stimulation. Br J Psychiatry 175:375–379

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Butefisch CM, Davis BC, Wise SP, Sawaki L, Kopylev L, Classen J, Cohen LG (2000) Mechanisms of use-dependent plasticity in the human motor cortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 97(7):3661–3665. doi: 10.1073/pnas.050350297050350297 [pii]

    Google Scholar 

  • Cantello R, Gianelli M, Civardi C, Mutani R (1992) Magnetic brain stimulation: the silent period after the motor evoked potential. Neurology 42(10):1951–1959

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen R, Corwell B, Yaseen Z, Hallett M, Cohen LG (1998a) Mechanisms of cortical reorganization in lower-limb amputees. J Neurosci 18(9):3443–3450

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen R, Tam A, Butefisch C, Corwell B, Ziemann U, Rothwell JC, Cohen LG (1998b) Intracortical inhibition and facilitation in different representations of the human motor cortex. J Neurophysiol 80(6):2870–2881

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chistyakov AV, Kaplan B, Rubichek O, Kreinin I, Koren D, Feinsod M, Klein E (2005a) Antidepressant effects of different schedules of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation vs. clomipramine in patients with major depression: relationship to changes in cortical excitability. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 8(2):223–233. doi: S1461145704004912 [pii] 10.1017/S1461145704004912

    Google Scholar 

  • Chistyakov AV, Kaplan B, Rubichek O, Kreinin I, Koren D, Hafner H, Feinsod M, Klein E (2005b) Effect of electroconvulsive therapy on cortical excitability in patients with major depression: a transcranial magnetic stimulation study. Clin Neurophysiol 116(2):386–392. doi: S1388-2457(04)00366-9 [pii] 10.1016/j.clinph.2004.09.008

    Google Scholar 

  • Classen J, Liepert J, Wise SP, Hallett M, Cohen LG (1998) Rapid plasticity of human cortical movement representation induced by practice. J Neurophysiol 79(2):1117–1123

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Claus D, Weis M, Jahnke U, Plewe A, Brunholzl C (1992) Corticospinal conduction studied with magnetic double stimulation in the intact human. J Neurol Sci 111(2):180–188

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Daskalakis ZJ, Christensen BK, Chen R, Fitzgerald PB, Zipursky RB, Kapur S (2002a) Evidence for impaired cortical inhibition in schizophrenia using transcranial magnetic stimulation. Arch Gen Psychiatry 59(4):347–354. doi: yoa01005 [pii]

    Google Scholar 

  • Daskalakis ZJ, Christensen BK, Fitzgerald PB, Chen R (2008a) Dysfunctional neural plasticity in patients with schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 65(4):378–385. doi: 65/4/378 [pii] 10.1001/archpsyc.65.4.378

    Google Scholar 

  • Daskalakis ZJ, Christensen BK, Fitzgerald PB, Moller B, Fountain SI, Chen R (2008b) Increased cortical inhibition in persons with schizophrenia treated with clozapine. J Psychopharmacol 22(2):203–209. doi: 0269881107084002 [pii] 10.1177/0269881107084002

    Google Scholar 

  • Daskalakis ZJ, Christensen BK, Fitzgerald PB, Roshan L, Chen R (2002b) The mechanisms of interhemispheric inhibition in the human motor cortex. J Physiol 543(Pt 1):317–326. doi: PHY_017673 [pii]

    Google Scholar 

  • Daskalakis ZJ, Farzan F, Barr MS, Maller JJ, Chen R, Fitzgerald PB (2008c) Long-interval cortical inhibition from the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex: a TMS-EEG study. Neuropsychopharmacology 33(12):2860–2869. doi: npp200822 [pii] 10.1038/npp.2008.22

    Google Scholar 

  • Daskalakis ZJ, Fitzgerald PB, Christensen BK (2007) The role of cortical inhibition in the pathophysiology and treatment of schizophrenia. Brain Res Rev 56(2):427–442. doi: S0165-0173(07)00195-6 [pii] 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.09.006

    Google Scholar 

  • Davey NJ, Puri BK, Lewis HS, Lewis SW, Ellaway PH (1997) Effects of antipsychotic medication on electromyographic responses to transcranial magnetic stimulation of the motor cortex in schizophrenia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 63(4):468–473

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Deisz RA (1999) GABA(B) receptor-mediated effects in human and rat neocortical neurones in vitro. Neuropharmacology 38(11):1755–1766. doi: S0028390899001367 [pii]

    Google Scholar 

  • Dresler T, Giani AS, Reinsberger C, Scheuerpflug P, Stober G, Fallgatter AJ (2010) Electroconvulsive therapy resolves cortical inhibition and manneristic omissions in a chronic catatonic patient. J Neural Transm 117(10):1209–1212. doi: 10.1007/s00702-010-0467-7

    Google Scholar 

  • Eichhammer P, Wiegand R, Kharraz A, Langguth B, Binder H, Hajak G (2004) Cortical excitability in neuroleptic-naive first-episode schizophrenic patients. Schizophr Res 67(2–3):253–259. doi: 10.1016/S0920-9964(03)00223-8 S0920996403002238 [pii]

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisen JL, Mancebo MA, Pinto A, Coles ME, Pagano ME, Stout R, Rasmussen SA (2006) Impact of obsessive-compulsive disorder on quality of life. Compr Psychiatry 47(4):270–275. doi: S0010-440X(05)00151-3 [pii] 10.1016/j.comppsych.2005.11.006

    Google Scholar 

  • Enticott PG, Hoy KE, Herring SE, Johnston PJ, Daskalakis ZJ, Fitzgerald PB (2008) Reduced motor facilitation during action observation in schizophrenia: a mirror neuron deficit? Schizophr Res 102(1–3):116–121. doi: S0920-9964(08)00167-9 [pii] 10.1016/j.schres.2008.04.001

    Google Scholar 

  • Farzan F, Barr MS, Levinson AJ, Chen R, Wong W, Fitzgerald PB, Daskalakis ZJ (2010a) Evidence for gamma inhibition deficits in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of patients with schizophrenia. Brain 133(Pt 5):1505–1514. doi: awq046 [pii] 10.1093/brain/awq046

    Google Scholar 

  • Farzan F, Barr MS, Levinson AJ, Chen R, Wong W, Fitzgerald PB, Daskalakis ZJ (2010b) Reliability of long-interval cortical inhibition in healthy human subjects: a TMS-EEG study. J Neurophysiol 104(3):1339–1346. doi: jn.00279.2010 [pii] 10.1152/jn.00279.2010

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferbert A, Priori A, Rothwell JC, Day BL, Colebatch JG, Marsden CD (1992) Interhemispheric inhibition of the human motor cortex. J Physiol 453:525–546

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ferrarelli F, Massimini M, Peterson MJ, Riedner BA, Lazar M, Murphy MJ, Huber R, Rosanova M, Alexander AL, Kalin N, Tononi G (2008) Reduced evoked gamma oscillations in the frontal cortex in schizophrenia patients: a TMS/EEG study. Am J Psychiatry 165(8):996–1005. doi: appi.ajp.2008.07111733 [pii] 10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.07111733

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald PB, Brown TL, Daskalakis ZJ, deCastella A, Kulkarni J (2002a) A study of transcallosal inhibition in schizophrenia using transcranial magnetic stimulation. Schizophr Res 56(3):199–209. doi: S0920996401002225 [pii]

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald PB, Brown TL, Daskalakis ZJ, Kulkarni J (2002b) A transcranial magnetic stimulation study of inhibitory deficits in the motor cortex in patients with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 114(1):11–22. doi: S0925492702000021 [pii]

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald PB, Brown TL, Daskalakis ZJ, Kulkarni J (2002c) A transcranial magnetic stimulation study of the effects of olanzapine and risperidone on motor cortical excitability in patients with schizophrenia. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 162(1):74–81. doi: 10.1007/s00213-002-1068-4

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald PB, Brown TL, Marston NA, Daskalakis ZJ, de Castella A, Bradshaw JL, Kulkarni J (2004a) Motor cortical excitability and clinical response to rTMS in depression. J Affect Disord 82(1):71–76. doi: S0165032703002684 [pii] 10.1016/j.jad.2003.09.014

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald PB, Brown TL, Marston NA, Oxley T, De Castella A, Daskalakis ZJ, Kulkarni J (2004b) Reduced plastic brain responses in schizophrenia: a transcranial magnetic stimulation study. Schizophr Res 71(1):17–26. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2004.01.018 S0920996404000453 [pii]

  • Fitzgerald PB, Brown TL, Marston NA, Oxley TJ, de Castella A, Daskalakis ZJ, Kulkarni J (2003) A transcranial magnetic stimulation study of abnormal cortical inhibition in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 118(3):197–207. doi: S0165178103000945 [pii]

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald PB, Daskalakis ZJ, Hoy K, Farzan F, Upton DJ, Cooper NR, Maller JJ (2008) Cortical inhibition in motor and non-motor regions: a combined TMS-EEG study. Clin EEG Neurosci 39(3):112–117

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald PB, Williams S, Daskalakis ZJ (2009) A transcranial magnetic stimulation study of the effects of cannabis use on motor cortical inhibition and excitability. Neuropsychopharmacology 34(11):2368–2375. doi: npp200971 [pii] 10.1038/npp.2009.71

    Google Scholar 

  • Frantseva MV, Fitzgerald PB, Chen R, Moller B, Daigle M, Daskalakis ZJ (2008) Evidence for impaired long-term potentiation in schizophrenia and its relationship to motor skill learning. Cereb Cortex 18(5):990–996. doi: bhm151 [pii] 10.1093/cercor/bhm151

    Google Scholar 

  • Friston KJ (1998) The disconnection hypothesis. Schizophr Res 30(2):115–125. doi: S0920-9964(97)00140-0 [pii]

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodwin RD, Marusic A, Hoven CW (2003) Suicide attempts in the United States: the role of physical illness. Soc Sci Med 56(8):1783–1788. doi: S0277953602001740 [pii]

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg BD, Ziemann U, Cora-Locatelli G, Harmon A, Murphy DL, Keel JC, Wassermann EM (2000) Altered cortical excitability in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neurology 54(1):142–147

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg BD, Ziemann U, Harmon A, Murphy DL, Wassermann EM (1998) Decreased neuronal inhibition in cerebral cortex in obsessive-compulsive disorder on transcranial magnetic stimulation. Lancet 352(9131):881–882. doi: S0140-6736(05)60009-8 [pii] 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)60009-8

    Google Scholar 

  • Grunhaus L, Polak D, Amiaz R, Dannon PN (2003) Motor-evoked potential amplitudes elicited by transcranial magnetic stimulation do not differentiate between patients and normal controls. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 6(4):371–378. doi: 10.1017/S1461145703003705 S1461145703003705 [pii]

    Google Scholar 

  • Hallett M (2000) Transcranial magnetic stimulation and the human brain. Nature 406(6792):147–150. doi: 10.1038/35018000

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanajima R, Ugawa Y, Machii K, Mochizuki H, Terao Y, Enomoto H, Furubayashi T, Shiio Y, Uesugi H, Kanazawa I (2001) Interhemispheric facilitation of the hand motor area in humans. J Physiol 531(Pt 3):849–859. doi: PHY_11264 [pii]

    Google Scholar 

  • Herbsman T, Forster L, Molnar C, Dougherty R, Christie D, Koola J, Ramsey D, Morgan PS, Bohning DE, George MS, Nahas Z (2009) Motor threshold in transcranial magnetic stimulation: the impact of white matter fiber orientation and skull-to-cortex distance. Hum Brain Mapp 30(7):2044–2055. doi: 10.1002/hbm.20649

  • Hoppner J, Kunesch E, Grossmann A, Tolzin CJ, Schulz M, Schlafke D, Ernst K (2001) Dysfunction of transcallosally mediated motor inhibition and callosal morphology in patients with schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 104(3):227–235. doi: acp247 [pii]

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoy KE, Georgiou-Karistianis N, Laycock R, Fitzgerald PB (2008) A transcranial magnetic stimulation study of transcallosal inhibition and facilitation in schizophrenia. J Clin Neurosci 15(8):863–867. doi: S0967-5868(07)00524-3 [pii] 10.1016/j.jocn.2007.08.009

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs KM, Donoghue JP (1991) Reshaping the cortical motor map by unmasking latent intracortical connections. Science 251(4996):944–947

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Javaid N, Kennedy JL, De Luca V (2011) Ethnicity and Age at Onset in Bipolar Spectrum Disorders. CNS Spectr doi: Javaid [pii]

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan HI, Sadock BJ, Grebb JA (1994) Kaplan and Sadock’s synopsis of psychiatry : behavioral sciences, clinical psychiatry. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore

    Google Scholar 

  • Karno M, Golding JM, Sorenson SB, Burnam MA (1988) The epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder in five US communities. Arch Gen Psychiatry 45(12):1094–1099

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O, Jin R, Merikangas KR, Walters EE (2005) Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry 62(6):593–602. doi: 62/6/593 [pii] 10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.593

    Google Scholar 

  • Koch G, Ribolsi M, Mori F, Sacchetti L, Codeca C, Rubino IA, Siracusano A, Bernardi G, Centonze D (2008) Connectivity between posterior parietal cortex and ipsilateral motor cortex is altered in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 64(9):815–819. doi: S0006-3223(08)00690-2 [pii] 10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.05.026

    Google Scholar 

  • Krnjevic K (1997) Role of GABA in cerebral cortex. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 75(5):439–451

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kujirai T, Caramia MD, Rothwell JC, Day BL, Thompson PD, Ferbert A, Wroe S, Asselman P, Marsden CD (1993) Corticocortical inhibition in human motor cortex. J Physiol 471:501–519

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lefaucheur JP, Lucas B, Andraud F, Hogrel JY, Bellivier F, Del Cul A, Rousseva A, Leboyer M, Paillere-Martinot ML (2008) Inter-hemispheric asymmetry of motor corticospinal excitability in major depression studied by transcranial magnetic stimulation. J Psychiatr Res 42(5):389–398. doi: S0022-3956(07)00056-8 [pii] 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2007.03.001

    Google Scholar 

  • Levinson AJ, Fitzgerald PB, Favalli G, Blumberger DM, Daigle M, Daskalakis ZJ (2010) Evidence of cortical inhibitory deficits in major depressive disorder. Biol Psychiatry 67(5):458–464. doi: S0006-3223(09)01152-4 [pii] 10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.09.025

    Google Scholar 

  • Levinson AJ, Young LT, Fitzgerald PB, Daskalakis ZJ (2007) Cortical inhibitory dysfunction in bipolar disorder: a study using transcranial magnetic stimulation. J Clin Psychopharmacol 27(5):493–497. doi: 10.1097/jcp.0b013e31814ce524 00004714-200710000-00014 [pii]

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu SK, Fitzgerald PB, Daigle M, Chen R, Daskalakis ZJ (2009) The relationship between cortical inhibition, antipsychotic treatment, and the symptoms of schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 65(6):503–509. doi: S0006-3223(08)01104-9 [pii] 10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.09.012

    Google Scholar 

  • Maeda F, Keenan JP, Pascual-Leone A (2000) Interhemispheric asymmetry of motor cortical excitability in major depression as measured by transcranial magnetic stimulation. Br J Psychiatry 177:169–173

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Manchia M, Lampus S, Chillotti C, Sardu C, Ardau R, Severino G, Del Zompo M (2008) Age at onset in Sardinian bipolar I patients: evidence for three subgroups. Bipolar Disord 10(3):443–446. doi: BDI572 [pii] 10.1111/j.1399-5618.2007.00572.x

    Google Scholar 

  • Manganotti P, Bortolomasi M, Zanette G, Pawelzik T, Giacopuzzi M, Fiaschi A (2001) Intravenous clomipramine decreases excitability of human motor cortex. A study with paired magnetic stimulation. J Neurol Sci 184(1):27–32. doi: S0022510X00004950 [pii]

    Google Scholar 

  • McClintock SM, Freitas C, Oberman L, Lisanby SH, Pascual-Leone A (2011) Transcranial magnetic stimulation: a neuroscientific probe of cortical function in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 70(1):19–27. doi: S0006-3223(11)00217-4 [pii] 10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.02.031

    Google Scholar 

  • Menzies L, Chamberlain SR, Laird AR, Thelen SM, Sahakian BJ, Bullmore ET (2008) Integrating evidence from neuroimaging and neuropsychological studies of obsessive-compulsive disorder: the orbitofronto-striatal model revisited. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 32(3):525–549. doi: S0149-7634(07)00114-5 [pii] 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.09.005

    Google Scholar 

  • Merikangas KR, Jin R, He JP, Kessler RC, Lee S, Sampson NA, Viana MC, Andrade LH, Hu C, Karam EG, Ladea M, Medina-Mora ME, Ono Y, Posada-Villa J, Sagar R, Wells JE, Zarkov Z (2011) Prevalence and correlates of bipolar spectrum disorder in the world mental health survey initiative. Arch Gen Psychiatry 68(3):241–251. doi: 68/3/241 [pii] 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.12

    Google Scholar 

  • Minelli A, Bortolomasi M, Scassellati C, Salvoro B, Avesani M, Manganotti P (2010) Effects of intravenous antidepressant drugs on the excitability of human motor cortex: a study with paired magnetic stimulation on depressed patients. Brain Stimul 3(1):15–21. doi: S1935-861X(09)00052-7 [pii] 10.1016/j.brs.2009.04.003

    Google Scholar 

  • Munchau A, Langosch JM, Gerschlager W, Rothwell JC, Orth M, Trimble MR (2005) Mirtazapine increases cortical excitability in healthy controls and epilepsy patients with major depression. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 76(4):527–533. doi: 76/4/527 [pii] 10.1136/jnnp.2004.037010

    Google Scholar 

  • Nakamura H, Kitagawa H, Kawaguchi Y, Tsuji H (1997) Intracortical facilitation and inhibition after transcranial magnetic stimulation in conscious humans. J Physiol 498(Pt 3):817–823

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Navarro R, Zarkowski P, Sporn A, Avery D (2009) Hemispheric asymmetry in resting motor threshold in major depression. J ECT 25(1):39–43. doi: 10.1097/YCT.0b013e3181761cf5

    Google Scholar 

  • Oxley T, Fitzgerald PB, Brown TL, de Castella A, Daskalakis ZJ, Kulkarni J (2004) Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation reveals abnormal plastic response to premotor cortex stimulation in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 56(9):628–633. doi: S0006-3223(04)00937-0 [pii] 10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.08.023

  • Pantelis C, Lambert TJ (2003) Managing patients with “treatment-resistant” schizophrenia. Med J Aust 178 Suppl:S62–S66. doi: pan10585_fm [pii]

    Google Scholar 

  • Pascual-Leone A, Manoach DS, Birnbaum R, Goff DC (2002) Motor cortical excitability in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 52(1):24–31. doi: S0006322302013173 [pii]

    Google Scholar 

  • Paulus W, Classen J, Cohen LG, Large CH, Di Lazzaro V, Nitsche M, Pascual-Leone A, Rosenow F, Rothwell JC, Ziemann U (2008) State of the art: Pharmacologic effects on cortical excitability measures tested by transcranial magnetic stimulation. Brain Stimul 1(3):151–163. doi: S1935-861X(08)00038-7 [pii] 10.1016/j.brs.2008.06.002

    Google Scholar 

  • Puri BK, Davey NJ, Ellaway PH, Lewis SW (1996) An investigation of motor function in schizophrenia using transcranial magnetic stimulation of the motor cortex. Br J Psychiatry 169(6):690–695

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rajji TK, Liu SK, Frantseva MV, Mulsant BH, Thoma J, Chen R, Fitzgerald PB, Daskalakis ZJ (2011) Exploring the effect of inducing long-term potentiation in the human motor cortex on motor learning. Brain Stimul 4(3):137–144. doi: S1935-861X(10)00134-8 [pii] 10.1016/j.brs.2010.09.007

    Google Scholar 

  • Reid PD, Daniels B, Rybak M, Turnier-Shea Y, Pridmore S (2002) Cortical excitability of psychiatric disorders: reduced post-exercise facilitation in depression compared to schizophrenia and controls. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 36(5):669–673. doi: 1082 [pii]

    Google Scholar 

  • Richter MA, de Jesus DR, Hoppenbrouwers S, Daigle M, Deluce J, Ravindran LN, Fitzgerald PB, Daskalakis ZJ (2012) Evidence for cortical inhibitory and excitatory dysfunction in obsessive compulsive disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 37(5):1144-1151. doi:npp2011300 [pii] 10.1038/npp.2011.300

    Google Scholar 

  • Rossini PM, Barker AT, Berardelli A, Caramia MD, Caruso G, Cracco RQ, Dimitrijevic MR, Hallett M, Katayama Y, Lucking CH et al (1994) Non-invasive electrical and magnetic stimulation of the brain, spinal cord and roots: basic principles and procedures for routine clinical application. Report of an IFCN committee. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 91(2):79–92

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Samii A, Wassermann EM, Ikoma K, Mercuri B, George MS, O’Fallon A, Dale JK, Straus SE, Hallett M (1996a) Decreased postexercise facilitation of motor evoked potentials in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome or depression. Neurology 47(6):1410–1414

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Samii A, Wassermann EM, Ikoma K, Mercuri B, Hallett M (1996b) Characterization of postexercise facilitation and depression of motor evoked potentials to transcranial magnetic stimulation. Neurology 46(5):1376–1382

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sanger TD, Garg RR, Chen R (2001) Interactions between two different inhibitory systems in the human motor cortex. J Physiol 530(Pt 2):307–317. doi: PHY_11174 [pii]

    Google Scholar 

  • Schieber MH, Hibbard LS (1993) How somatotopic is the motor cortex hand area? Science 261(5120):489–492

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shajahan PM, Glabus MF, Gooding PA, Shah PJ, Ebmeier KP (1999a) Reduced cortical excitability in depression. Impaired post-exercise motor facilitation with transcranial magnetic stimulation. Br J Psychiatry 174:449–454

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shajahan PM, Glabus MF, Jenkins JA, Ebmeier KP (1999b) Postexercise motor evoked potentials in depressed patients, recovered depressed patients, and controls. Neurology 53(3):644–646

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Siebner HR, Dressnandt J, Auer C, Conrad B (1998) Continuous intrathecal baclofen infusions induced a marked increase of the transcranially evoked silent period in a patient with generalized dystonia. Muscle Nerve 21(9):1209–1212. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4598(199809)21:9<1209::AID-MUS15>3.0.CO;2-M [pii]

    Google Scholar 

  • Soubasi E, Chroni E, Gourzis P, Zisis A, Beratis S, Papathanasopoulos P (2010) Cortical motor neurophysiology of patients with schizophrenia: a study using transcranial magnetic stimulation. Psychiatry Res 176(2–3):132–136. doi: S0165-1781(09)00158-9 [pii] 10.1016/j.psychres.2009.04.003

    Google Scholar 

  • Stefan K, Kunesch E, Cohen LG, Benecke R, Classen J (2000) Induction of plasticity in the human motor cortex by paired associative stimulation. Brain 123(Pt 3):572–584

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stephan KE, Baldeweg T, Friston KJ (2006) Synaptic plasticity and dysconnection in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 59(10):929–939. doi: S0006-3223(05)01269-2 [pii] 10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.10.005

    Google Scholar 

  • Tergau F, Wanschura V, Canelo M, Wischer S, Wassermann EM, Ziemann U, Paulus W (1999) Complete suppression of voluntary motor drive during the silent period after transcranial magnetic stimulation. Exp Brain Res 124(4):447–454

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Valls-Sole J, Pascual-Leone A, Wassermann EM, Hallett M (1992) Human motor evoked responses to paired transcranial magnetic stimuli. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 85(6):355–364

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • van Os J, Kapur S (2009) Schizophrenia. Lancet 374(9690):635–645. doi: S0140-6736(09)60995-8 [pii] 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60995-8

  • Voineskos AN, Farzan F, Barr MS, Lobaugh NJ, Mulsant BH, Chen R, Fitzgerald PB, Daskalakis ZJ (2010) The role of the corpus callosum in transcranial magnetic stimulation induced interhemispheric signal propagation. Biol Psychiatry 68(9):825–831. doi: S0006-3223(10)00654-2 [pii] 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.06.021

  • Wagner T, Valero-Cabre A, Pascual-Leone A (2007) Noninvasive human brain stimulation. Annu Rev Biomed Eng 9:527–565. doi: 10.1146/annurev.bioeng.9.061206.133100

    Google Scholar 

  • Werhahn KJ, Kunesch E, Noachtar S, Benecke R, Classen J (1999) Differential effects on motorcortical inhibition induced by blockade of GABA uptake in humans. J Physiol 517 (Pt 2):591–597. doi: PHY_9281 [pii]

    Google Scholar 

  • Wobrock T, Hasan A, Malchow B, Wolff-Menzler C, Guse B, Lang N, Schneider-Axmann T, Ecker UK, Falkai P (2010) Increased cortical inhibition deficits in first-episode schizophrenia with comorbid cannabis abuse. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 208(3):353–363. doi: 10.1007/s00213-009-1736-8

    Google Scholar 

  • Wobrock T, Schneider-Axmann T, Retz W, Rosler M, Kadovic D, Falkai P, Schneider M (2009) Motor circuit abnormalities in first-episode schizophrenia assessed with transcranial magnetic stimulation. Pharmacopsychiatry 42(5):194–201. doi: 10.1055/s-0029-1224137

    Google Scholar 

  • Wobrock T, Schneider M, Kadovic D, Schneider-Axmann T, Ecker UK, Retz W, Rosler M, Falkai P (2008) Reduced cortical inhibition in first-episode schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 105(1-3):252–261. doi: S0920-9964(08)00277-6 [pii] 10.1016/j.schres.2008.06.001

    Google Scholar 

  • Zarkowski P, Navarro R, Pavlicova M, George MS, Avery D (2009) The effect of daily prefrontal repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation over several weeks on resting motor threshold. Brain Stimul 2(3):163–167. doi: 10.1016/j.brs.2009.02.001

    Google Scholar 

  • Ziemann U, Lonnecker S, Steinhoff BJ, Paulus W (1996) Effects of antiepileptic drugs on motor cortex excitability in humans: a transcranial magnetic stimulation study. Ann Neurol 40(3):367–378. doi: 10.1002/ana.410400306

    Google Scholar 

  • Ziemann U, Tergau F, Wischer S, Hildebrandt J, Paulus W (1998) Pharmacological control of facilitatory I-wave interaction in the human motor cortex. A paired transcranial magnetic stimulation study. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 109(4):321–330

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Schizophrenia Program, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, University of Toronto, 7th Floor—Clarke Division, 250 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5T 1R8, Canada

    Lakshmi N. Ravindran, Natasha Radhu & Zafiris J. Daskalakis

Authors
  1. Lakshmi N. Ravindran
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Natasha Radhu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Zafiris J. Daskalakis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Zafiris J. Daskalakis .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. , Department of Medicine, Toronto Western Research Institute, Bathurst St. 399, Toronto, M5T 2S8, Ontario, Canada

    Robert Chen

  2. Inst. Neurology, University College London, Queen Square, London, WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom

    John C. Rothwell

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2012 Springer Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Ravindran, L.N., Radhu, N., Daskalakis, Z.J. (2012). Examining the Cortical Phenomena of Psychiatric Disorders using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation. In: Chen, R., Rothwell, J. (eds) Cortical Connectivity. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32767-4_16

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation