Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Cultural Evolution in Africa and Eurasia During the Middle and Late Pleistocene

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
Handbook of Paleoanthropology

  • 456 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter examines large-scale patterns of behavioral change that are often viewed as indicators for the advent of cultural modernity and developed symbolic communication. Using examples from Africa and Eurasia, the chapter reviews patterns of lithic and organic technology, subsistence, and settlement as potential indicators of modern behavior. These areas of research produce a mosaic picture of advanced technology and behavioral patterns that come and go during the late Middle and Late Pleistocene. Based on these data the emergence of modern behavior, as seen in the archaeologically visible material record, appears to be gradual and heterogeneous in space and time. During the early part of the Late Pleistocene, personal ornaments in the form of perforated seashells are documented in southwestern Asia and northern and southern Africa. By about 40,000 years ago (Ka), a diverse array of personal ornaments are documented across the Old World in association with Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans. These include both modified natural objects and fully formed ornaments. The timing and distribution of the appearance of figurative art, mythical imagery, and other classes of artifacts including musical instruments point to a more punctuated development of fully modern behavior during the middle of the Late Pleistocene and certainly no later than 40 Ka. Due perhaps in part to the long and intense history of research, much, but by no means all, of the relevant data come from Europe. Early figurative art from the Aurignacian of southwestern Germany, northern Italy, Austria, and southern France provides undisputed evidence for fully developed symbolic communication and behavioral modernity. This chapter also discusses some of the hypotheses for the development and spread of cultural modernity and rejects a strict monogenetic model in favor of a pattern of mosaic polycentric development. This chapter highlights the need for new refutable, regional and superregional hypotheses for the advent and spread of behavioral modernity.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Albrecht G, Hahn J, Torke WG (1972) Merkmalanalyse von Geschoßspitzen des mittleren Jungpleistozäns in Mittel- und Osteuropa, Archaeologica Venatoria 2. Verlag W. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart

    Google Scholar 

  • Albrecht G, Holdermann C-S, Kerig T, Lechterbeck J, Serangeli J (1998) Flöten aus Bärenknochen-die frühesten Musikinstrumente? Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt 28:1–19

    Google Scholar 

  • Ambrose SH (1998) Chronology of the later Stone Age and food production in East Africa. J Archaeol Sci 24:377–392

    Google Scholar 

  • Archaeological Institute of Liaoning Province (2009) The report of research on the prehistoric cave in Haicheng, Liaoning Province. Science Press, Beijing

    Google Scholar 

  • Azoury I (1986) Ksar Akil, Lebanon. A technological and typological analysis of the transitional and early upper Palaeolithic levels of Ksar Akil and Abu Halka, vol I: Levels XXV–XII. With an introduction by Bergman C, Copeland L. BAR international series. BAR, Oxford, p 289

    Google Scholar 

  • Backwell L, d’Errico F, Wadley L (2008) Middle Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave, South Africa. J Archaeol Sci 35:1566–1580

    Google Scholar 

  • Baffier D (1999) Les derniers Néandertaliens. Le Châtelperronien. La maison des roches, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  • Barham LS (1998) Possible early pigment use in south-central Africa. Curr Anthropol 39:703–720

    Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Yosef O, Vandermeersch B (1993) Modern humans in the Levant. Sci Am 268:94–99

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beck JW, Richards DA, Edwards RL, Silverman BW, Smart PL, Donahue DJ, Hererra-Osterheld S, Burr GS, Calsoyas L, Jull AJT, Biddulph D (2001) Extremely large variations of atmospheric 14C concentration during the last glacial period. Science 292:2453–2458

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bednarik RG (2003) A figurine from the African Acheulian. Curr Anthropol 44:405–413

    Google Scholar 

  • Besançon J, Copeland L, Hours F, Muhesen S, Sanlaville P (1981) Le Paléolithique d’el Kowm. Rapport Préliminaire. Paléorient 7:33–55

    Google Scholar 

  • Besesek M, Radu V-A, Lascu V-T (avec la collaboration de B Gély) (2010) Découverte d’une nouvelle grotte ornée paléolithique (Peştera Coliboaia), Roumanie, département du Bihor. Inora 57:8–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Binford LR (1989) Isolating the transition to cultural adaptations: an organizational approach. In: Trinkaus E (ed) The emergence of modern humans. Biocultural adaptations in the later Pleistocene. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 18–41

    Google Scholar 

  • Binford LR (1998) Hearth and home: the spatial analysis of ethnographically documented rock shelter occupations as a template for distinguishing between human and hominid use of sheltered space. In: Conard NJ, Wendorf F (eds) Middle Palaeolithic and Middle Stone Age settlement systems. Proceedings of the XIII congress of the international union of prehistoric and protohistoric science. Forli, pp 229–239

    Google Scholar 

  • Bocherens H (2011) Diet and ecology of Neanderthals: implications from C and N isotopes. In: Conard NJ, Richter J (eds) Neanderthal lifeways: subsistence and technology. Springer, Tübingen, pp 73–85

    Google Scholar 

  • Bocherens H, Fizet M, Mariotti A, Lange-Badré B, Vandermeersch B, Borel J-P, Bellon G (1991) Isotopic biogeochemistry (13c, 15N) of fossil vertebrate collagen: implications for the study of fossil food web including Neandertal Man. J Hum Evol 20:481–492

    Google Scholar 

  • Bocherens H, Billiou D, Mariotti A, Patou-Mathis M, Otte M, Bonjean D, Toussaint M (1999) Palaeoenvironmental and palaeodietary implications of isotopic biogeochemistry of last interglacial Neanderthal and mammal bones in Scladina Cave (Belgium). J Archaeol Sci 26:599–607

    Google Scholar 

  • Bocherens H, Billiou D, Mariotti A, Toussaint M, Patou-Mathis M, Bonjean D, Otte M (2001) New isotopic evidence for dietary habits of Neandertals from Belgium. J Hum Evol 40:497–505

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boëda E, Geneste J-M, Meignen L (1990) Identification de chaînes opératoires lithiques du Paléolithique ancien et moyen. Paléo 2:43–80

    Google Scholar 

  • Boëda E, Connan J, Muhesen S (1998) Bitumen as hafting material on Middle Palaeolithic artifacts from the el-Kowm Basin Syria. In: Akazawa T, Aoki K, Bar-Yosef O (eds) Neanderthals and modern humans in Western Asia. Plenum, New York, pp 181–204

    Google Scholar 

  • Bon F (2002) L’Aurignacien entre Mer et Océan: Réflexion sur l’unité des phase anciennes de l’Aurignacien dans le sud de la France. Société Préhistorique Française Mémoire XXIX

    Google Scholar 

  • Bordes F (1961) Mousterian cultures in France. Science 134:803–810

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bordes F (1972) A tale of two caves. Harper and Row, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Bosinski G (1967) Die mittelpaläolithischen Funde im westlichen Mitteleuropa. Fundamenta A/4. Böhlau-Verlag, Köln/Graz

    Google Scholar 

  • Bosinski G (1982) The transition Lower/Middle Palaeolithic in northwestern Germany. In: Ronen A (ed) The transition from Lower to Middle Palaeolithic and the origin of modern man, BAR international series 151. BAR, Oxford, pp 165–175

    Google Scholar 

  • Bouzouggara A, Bartonb N, Vanhaerend M et al (2007) 82,000-year-old shell beads from North Africa and implications for the origins of modern human behavior. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104(24):9964–9969

    Google Scholar 

  • Broglio A (2002) Palaeolitico e Mesolitico. In: Aspes A (ed) Preistoria Veronese Verona: Memorie del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Verona, pp 11–56

    Google Scholar 

  • Broglio A, Dalmeri G (eds) (2005) Pitture paleolitiche nelle Prealpi venete. Grotta di Fumane e Riparo Dalmeri. Memorie Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Vernoa. Sez. Scienze dell’Uomo n. 7

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooks AS, Helgren DM, Cramer JM, Franklin A, Hornyak W, Keating J, Klein RG, Rink WJ, Schwarcz HP, Smith JNL, Steward K, Todd NE, Verniers J, Yellen JE (1995) Dating the context of three Middle Stone Age sites with bone points in the upper Semliki Valley Zaire. Science 268:548–553

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buisson D (1990) Les flutes paléolithiques d’Isturitz (Pyrénées atlantiques). Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Français 87:420–433

    Google Scholar 

  • Burke A (ed) (2000) Hunting in the middle Palaeolithic. Int J Osteoarchaeol 10(5 Special Issue):281–406

    Google Scholar 

  • Chacón Navarro MG, Vaquero M, Carbonell E (2012) The Neanderthal home: spatial and social behaviours. 247:1–362

    Google Scholar 

  • Churchill SE, Smith FH (2001) Makers of the early Aurignacian of Europe. Yrbk Phys Anthropol 43:61–115

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark JD (1982) The cultures of the Middle Palaeolithic/Middle Stone Age. In: Clark JD (ed) From the earliest times to 500 B.C, vol 1, The Cambridge history of Africa. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 248–341

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark JD (1988) The Middle Stone Age of east Africa and the beginnings of regional identity. J World Prehist 2:235–305

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark JL, Speth JD (eds) (2013) Zooarchaeology and modern human origins: human hunting behavior during the later Pleistocene, vertebrate paleobiology and paleoanthropology. Springer, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Clottes J (2001) La Grotte Chauvet. L’Art des origines. Éditions du Seuil, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  • Clottes J, Gély B, Ghemi C, Kaltenecker SÉ, Lascu VT, Moreau C, Philippe M, Prud’Homme F, Valladas H (2011) Discoveries: a very ancient art in Rumania. The Coliboaia dates. Inora 61:1–3

    Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ (1990) Laminar lithic assemblages from the last interglacial complex in Northwestern Europe. J Anthropol Res 46:243–262

    Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ (1992) Tönchesberg and its position in the Palaeolithic prehistory of northern Europe. Monographien des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz 20. Habelt, Bonn

    Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ (1998) Comment on: Neanderthal acculturation in Western Europe? A critical review of the evidence and its interpretation by F. d’Errico et al. Curr Anthropol 39:22–24

    Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ (2000) Flint artifacts from the 1988/1989 excavations at Giza. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo 56:21–41

    Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ (2001a) The future of archaeology. In: Kobyliński Z (ed) Quo vadis archaeologia? Whither European archaeology in the 21st century? Proceedings of the European science foundation exploratory workshop mądralin near Warsaw. October 12–13 2001. Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, pp 106–117

    Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ (2001b) River terraces volcanic craters and Middle Palaeolithic settlement in the Rhineland. In: Conard NJ (ed) Settlement dynamics of the Middle Palaeolithic and Middle Stone Age, Tübingen publications in prehistory. Kerns Verlag, Tübingen, pp 221–250

    Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ (2001c) Settlement dynamics of the Middle Palaeolithic and Middle Stone Age, Tübingen publications in prehistory. Kerns Verlag, Tübingen

    Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ (2003a) Eiszeitlicher Schmuck auf der Schwäbischen Alb. In: Kölbl S, Conard NJ (eds) Eiszeitschmuck. Status und Schönheit, Museumsheft 6. Urgeschichtliches Museum, Blaubeuren, pp 15–49

    Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ (2003b) Palaeolithic ivory sculptures from southwestern Germany and the origins of figurative art. Nature 426:830–832

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ (2004a) Die Entstehung der kulturellen Modernität. In: Conard NJ (ed) Woher kommt der Mensch? Attempto Verlag, Tübingen, pp 188–218

    Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ (2004b) Settlement dynamics of the Middle Palaeolithic and Middle Stone Age II, Tübingen publications in prehistory. Kerns Verlag, Tübingen

    Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ (2008) A critical view of the evidence for a southern African origin of behavioral modernity. S Afr Archaeol Soc Goodwin Ser 10:175–179

    Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ (2009) A female figurine from the basal Aurignacian of Hohle Fels cave in southwestern Germany. Nature 459:248–252

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ (2010) Cultural modernity: consensus or conundrum. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 117:7621–7622

    Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ (2012) Klingentechnologie vor dem Jungpaläolithikum. In: Floss H (ed) Steinartefakte vom Altpaläolithikum bis in die Neuzeit. Kerns Verlag, Tübingen, pp 245–266

    Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ (2013) The evolution of modern behavior in East Asia. In: Sanz N (ed) Scientific perspectives: in human origin sites and the World Heritage Convention in Asia. UNESCO, Paris, pp 16–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ, Adler DS (1997) Lithic reduction and hominid behavior in the Middle Palaeolithic of the Rhineland. J Anthropol Res 53:147–175

    Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ, Bolus M (2003) Radiocarbon dating the appearance of modern humans and timing of cultural innovations in Europe: new results and new challenges. J Hum Evol 44:331–371

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ, Fischer B (2000) Are there recognizable cultural entities in the German Middle Palaeolithic? In: Ronen A, Weinstein-Evron M (eds) Toward modern humans: Yabrudian and Micoquian, 400–50 k years ago, BAR international series 850. BAR, Oxford, pp 7–24

    Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ, Malina M (2006) Schmuck und vielleicht Musik Ergebnisse der neuen Nachgrabung am Vogelherd im Lonetal. Archäologische Ausgrabungen Baden-Württemberg 2005

    Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ, Prindiville TJ (2000) Middle Palaeolithic hunting economies in the Rhineland. Int J Osteoarchaeol 10:286–309

    Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ, Grootes PM, Smith FH (2004a) Unexpectedly recent dates for human remains from Vogelherd. Nature 430:198–201

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ, Malina M, Münzel SC, Seeberger F (2004b) Eine Mammutelfenbeinflöte aus dem Aurignacien des Geissenklösterle: Neue Belege für eine Musiktradition im frühen Jungpaläolithikum auf der Schwäbischen Alb. Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt 34:447–462

    Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ, Floss H, Barth M, Serangeli J (eds) (2009a) Eiszeit – Kunst und Kultur. Begleitband zur Großen Landesausstellung Baden-Württemberg. Archäologisches Landesmuseum Baden-Württemberg, Stuttgart

    Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ, Malina M, Münzel SC (2009b) New flutes document the earliest musical tradition in southwestern Germany. Nature 460:737–740

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ, Porraz G, Wadley L (2012) What is in a name? Characterizing the ‘post-Howieson’s Poort’ at Sibudu. S Afr Archaeol Bull 67:180–199

    Google Scholar 

  • Conard NJ, Krönneck P, Kitagawa K, Böhme M, Münzel SC (2013) The importance of fish, fowl and small mammals in the Paleolithic Diet of the Swabian Jura, Southwestern Germany. In: Clark JL, Speth JD (eds) Zooarchaeology and modern human origins: human hunting behavior during the later Pleistocene, Vertebrate paleobiology and paleoanthropology. Springer, New York, pp 173–190

    Google Scholar 

  • Costamagno S, Meignen L, Beauval C, Vandermeersch B, Maureille B (2006) Les Pradelles (Marillac-le-Franc, France): a Mousterian reindeer hunting camp? J Anthropol Archaeol 25:466–484

    Google Scholar 

  • d’Errico F (2003) The invisible frontier. A multiple species model for the origin of behavioral modernity. Evol Anthropol 12:188–202

    Google Scholar 

  • d’Errico F, Nowell A (2000) A new look at the Berekhat ram figurine: implications for the origins of symbolism. Cambridge Archaeol J 10:123–167

    Google Scholar 

  • d’Errico F, Soressi M (2002) Systematic use of pigment by Pech-de-l’Azé Neandertals: implications for the origin of behavioral modernity. Palaeoanthropology society meeting 19–20 March Denver. J Hum Evol 42:A13

    Google Scholar 

  • d’Errico F, Stringer CB (2011) Evolution, revolution or saltation scenario for the emergence of modern cultures? Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 366(1567):1060–1069

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • d’Errico F, Zilhão J, Julien M, Baffier D, Pelegrin J (1998) Neanderthal acculturation in Western Europe? A critical review of the evidence and its interpretation. Curr Anthropol 39:1–44

    Google Scholar 

  • d’Errico F, Henshilwood C, Lawson G, Vanhaeren M, Tillier A-M, Soressi M, Bresson F, Maureille B, Nowell A, Lakarra J, Backwell L, Julien M (2003) Archaeological evidence for the emergence of language symbolism and music-an alternative multidisciplinary perspective. J World Prehist 17:1–70

    Google Scholar 

  • d’Errico F, Vanhaeren M, Wadley L (2008) Possible shell beads from the Middle Stone Age layers of Sibudu Cave, South Africa. J Archaeol Sci 35:2675–2685

    Google Scholar 

  • d’Errico F, García Moreno R, Rifkin RF (2012) Technological, elemental and colorimetric analysis of an engraved ochre fragment from the Middle Stone Age levels of Klasies River Cave 1. S Afr J Archaeol Sci 39:942–952

    Google Scholar 

  • Dayet L, Texier P-J, Daniel F, Porraz G (2013) Ochre resources from the Middle Stone Age sequence of Diepkloof Rock Shelter, Western Cape, South Africa. J Archaeol Sci 40:3492–3505

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Deacon HJ, Deacon J (1999) Human beginnings in South Africa: uncovering the secrets of the Stone Age. David Philip Publishers, Cape Town

    Google Scholar 

  • Defleur A (1993) Les sépultures moustériennes. CNRS Éditions, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  • Delporte H (1998) Les Aurignaciens-premiers hommes modernes. La maison des roches, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  • Douka K, Grimaldi S, Boschian G, del Lucchese A, Higham TFG (2012) A new chronostratigraphic framework for the Upper Palaeolithic of Riparo Mochi (Italy). J Hum Evol 62:286–299

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Féblot-Augustins J (1997) La circulation des matières premières au Paléolithique. ERAUL 75. Université de Liège, Liège

    Google Scholar 

  • Floss H (1994) Rohmaterialversorgung im Paläolithikum des Mittelrheingebietes. Monographien des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz 21. Habelt, Bonn

    Google Scholar 

  • Foley R (1987) Hominid species and stone-tool assemblages: how are they related? Antiquity 61:380–392

    Google Scholar 

  • Foley R, Lahr MM (2003) On stony ground: lithic technology human evolution and the emergence of culture. Evol Anthropol 12:109–122

    Google Scholar 

  • Gao X, Li JZ, Madsen DB, Brantingham PJ, Elston RG, Bettinger RL (2002) New 14C dates for Shuidonggou and related discussions. Acta Anthropol Sinica 21:211–218

    Google Scholar 

  • Gargett RH (1989) Grave shortcomings. The evidence for Neandertal burial. Curr Anthropol 30:157–190

    Google Scholar 

  • Gargett RH (1999) Middle Palaeolithic burial is not a dead issue: the view from Qafzeh, Saint-Césaire, Kebara, Amud and Dederiyeh. J Hum Evol 37:27–40

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gatti S (1993) Dives Anagnia-Archeologia nella valle del Sacco. “L’Erma” di Bretschneider, Roma

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaudzinski S (1995) Wisentjäger in Wallertheim. Zur Taphonomie einer mittelpaläolithischen Freilandfundstelle in Rheinhessen. Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz 39(1992):245–423

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaudzinski S (1996) On bovid assemblages and the consequences for the knowledge of subsistence patterns in the Middle Palaeolithic. Proc Prehist Soc 62:19–39

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaudzinski S (1999) Middle Palaeolithic bone tools from the open-air site Salzgitter-Lebenstedt (Germany). J Archaeol Sci 26:125–141

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaudzinski S, Roebroeks W (2000) Adults only. Reindeer hunting at the Middle Palaeolithic site Salzgitter-Lebenstedt Northern Germany. J Hum Evol 38:497–521

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geneste J-M (1988) Les industries de la grotte Vaufrey: technologie du débitage économie et circulation de la matière première lithique. In: Rigaud J-P (ed) La grotte Vaufrey à Cénac et Saint-Julien (Dordogne) Paléoenvironnements, chronologie et activités humaines. Mémoires de la Société Préhistorique Française 19, Paris, pp 441–517

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg P, Miller CE, Schiegl S, Ligouis B, Berna F, Conard NJ, Wadley L (2013a) Bedding, hearths, and site maintenance in the Middle Stone Age of Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Archaeol Anthropol Sci. doi:10.1007/s12520-009-0008-1

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg P, Aldeias V, Dibble H, McPherron S, Sandgathe D, Turq A (2013) Testing the Roc de Marsal Neandertal “Burial” with geoarchaeology. Archaeol Anthropol Sci

    Google Scholar 

  • Goren-Inbar N (1986) A figurine from the Acheulean site of Berekhat Ram. Mitekufat Haeven 19:7–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Goren-Inbar N, Peltz S (1995) Additional remarks on the Berekhat Ram figurine. Rock Art Res 12:131–132

    Google Scholar 

  • Green RE, Krause J, Briggs AW, Maricic T, Stenzel U, Kircher M, Patterson N, Li H, Zhai W, Hsi-Yang Fritz M, Hansen NF, Durand EY, Malaspinas A-S, Jensen JD, Marques-Bonet T, Alkan C, Prüfer K, Meyer M, Burbano HA, Good JM, Schultz R, Aximu-Petri A, Butthof A, Höber B, Höffner B, Siegemund M, Weihmann A, Nusbaum C, Lander ES, Russ C, Novod N, Affourtit J, Egholm M, Verna C, Rudan P, Brajkovic D, Kucan Ž, Gušic I, Doronichev VB, Golovanova LV, Lalueza-Fox C, de la Rasilla M, Fortea J, Rosas A, Schmitz RW, Johnson PLF, Eichler EE, Falush D, Birney E, Mullikin JC, Slatkin M, Nielsen R, Kelso J, Lachmann M, Reich D, Pääbo S (2010) A draft sequence of the Neandertal genome. Science 328(5979):710–722

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hahn J (1977) Aurignacien, das ältere Jungpaläolithikum in Mittel- und Osteuropa. Böhlau-Verlag, Köln/Wien

    Google Scholar 

  • Hahn J (1986) Kraft und Aggression. Die Botschaft der Eiszeitkunst im Aurignacien Süddeutschlands? Verlag Archaeologica Venatoria, Tübingen

    Google Scholar 

  • Hahn J (1988) Die Geißenklösterle-Höhle im Achtal bei Blaubeuren I. Fundhorizontbildung und Besiedlung im Mittelpaläolithikum und im Aurignacien. Konrad Theiss Verlag, Stuttgart

    Google Scholar 

  • Hahn J, Münzel S (1995) Knochenflöten aus dem Aurignacien des Geißenklösterle bei Blaubeuren Alb-Donau-Kreis. Fundberichte aus Baden-Württemberg 20:1–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Haidle MN (2004) Menschenaffen? Affenmenschen? Menschen! Kognition und Sprache im Altpaläolithikum. In: Conard NJ (ed) Woher kommt der Mensch? Attempto Verlag, Tübingen, pp 69–97

    Google Scholar 

  • Henshilwood CS, Marean CW (2003) The origin of modern human behavior: critique of the models and their test implications. Curr Anthropol 44:627–651

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Henshilwood CS, Sealy JC, Yates R, Cruz-Uribe K, Goldberg P, Grine FE, Klein RG, Poggenpoel C, van Nierkerk K, Watts I (2001) Blombos Cave Southern Cape South Africa: preliminary report on the 1992–1999 excavations of the Middle Stone Age levels. J Archaeol Sci 28:421–448

    Google Scholar 

  • Henshilwood CS, d’Errico F, Yates R, Jacobs Z, Tribolo C, Duller GAT, Mercier N, Sealy JC, Valladas H, Watts I, Wittle A (2002) The emergence of modern human behavior: Middle Stone Age engravings from South Africa. Science 295:1278–1280

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Henshilwood CS, d’Errico F, Vanhaeren M, van Niekerk K, Jacobs Z (2004) Middle Stone Age shell beads from South Africa. Science 304:404

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Henshilwood CS et al (2014) Klipdrift Shelter, southern Cape, South Africa: preliminary report on the Howiesons Poort layers. J Archaeol Sci 45:284–303

    Google Scholar 

  • Higham TFG (2011) European Middle and Upper Palaeolithic radiocarbon dates are often older than they look: problems with previous dates and some remedies. Antiquity 85:235–249

    Google Scholar 

  • Higham TFG, Jacobi RM, Bassell L, Bronk Ramsey C, Chiotti L, Nespoulet R (2011) Precision dating of the Palaeolithic: a new radiocarbon chronology for the Abri Pataud (France), a key Aurignacian sequence. J Hum Evol 61:549–563

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Higham T, Basell L, Jacobi R, Wood R, Bronk Ramsey C, Conard NJ (2012) Testing models for the beginnings of the Aurignacian and the advent of figurative art and music: the radiocarbon chronology of Geißenklösterle. J Hum Evol 62:664–676

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hovers E, Belfer-Cohen A (2006) ‘Now you see it, now you don’t’ – modern human behavior in the Middle Paleolithic. In: Hovers E, Kuhn SL (eds) Transitions before the transition: evolution and stability in the Middle Paleolithic and Middle Stone Age. Springer, New York, pp 295–304

    Google Scholar 

  • Hovers E, Ilani S, Bar-Yosef O, Vandermeersch B (2003) An early case of color symbolism: ochre use by modern humans in Qafzeh Cave. Curr Anthropol 44:491–522

    Google Scholar 

  • Hublin J-J, Barroso Ruiz C, Medina Lara P, Fontugne M, Reyss J-L (1995) The Mousterian site of Zafarraya (Andalucia Spain): dating and implications on the palaeolithic peopling processes of Western Europe. CR Acad Sci Paris 321(IIa):931–937

    Google Scholar 

  • Hublin J-J, Spoor F, Braun M, Sonneveld F, Condemi S (1996) A late Neanderthal associated with Upper Palaeolithic artifacts. Nature 381:224–226

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hublin JJ et al (2013) Radiocarbon dates from the Grotte du Renne and Saint-Césaire support a Neandertal origin for the Châtelperronian. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. doi:10.1073/pnas.1212924109

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hughen K, Lehman S, Southon J, Overpeck J, Marchal O, Herring C, Turnbull J (2004) 14C activity and global carbon cycle changes over the past 50,000 years. Science 303:202–207

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs Z, Wintle AG, Duller GAT (2003a) Optical dating of dune sand from Blombos Cave South Africa: I: multiple grain data. J Hum Evol 44:599–612

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs Z, Duller GAT, Wintle AG (2003b) Optical dating of dune sand from Blombos Cave South Africa: II: single grain data. J Hum Evol 44:613–625

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs Z et al (2008) Ages for the Middle Stone Age of Southern Africa: implications for human behavior and dispersal. Science 322:733

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jerardino A, Marean CW (2010) Shellfish gathering, marine paleoecology and modern human behavior: perspectives from cave PP13B, Pinnacle Point, South Africa. J Hum Evol 59:412–424. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.07.003

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jöris O (2002) Die aus der Kälte kamen… Von der Kultur Später Neandertaler in Mitteleuropa. Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Urgeschichte 11:5–32

    Google Scholar 

  • Kandel AW (2004) Modification of ostrich eggs by carnivores and its bearing on the interpretation of archaeological and paleontological finds. J Archaeol Sci 31:377–391

    Google Scholar 

  • Kandel AW, Bolus M, Conard NJ, Haidle MN (2014) The concept of behavioral hyperplasticity as a framework for examining cultural change during the Middle Stone Age of Southern Africa. Paper presented at the 14th congress of the pan African archaeological association for prehistory and related studies, Johannesburg, 14–18 July 2014

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein RG (2009) The human career: human biological and cultural origins, 3rd edn. University of Chicago Press, Chicago

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein RG, Edgar B (2002) The dawn of human culture. Nevraumont, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Kölbl S, Conard NJ (2003) Eiszeitschmuck. Status und Schönheit. Museumsheft 6. Urgeschichtliches Museum, Blaubeuren

    Google Scholar 

  • Kolen J (1999) Hominids without homes: on the nature of Middle Palaeolithic settlement in Europe. In: Roebroeks W, Gamble C (eds) The Middle Palaeolithic occupation of Europe. University of Leiden, Leiden, pp 139–175

    Google Scholar 

  • Krause J, Fu Q, Good JM, Viola B, Shunkov MV, Derevianko AP, Pääbo S (2010) The complete mtDNA genome of an unknown hominin from Southern Siberia. Nature 464:894–897

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn SL (1995) Mousterian lithic technology: an ecological perspective. Princeton University Press, Princeton

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn SL, Hovers E (eds) (2013) Alternative pathways to complexity: evolutionary trajectories in the Middle Paleolithic and Middle Stone Age in Wenner-Gren symposium supplement 8. Curr Anthropol 54:S8

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn SL, Stiner MC (1998) The earliest aurignacian of Riparo Mochi (Liguria Italy). Curr Anthropol 39(Suppl):S175–S189

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn SL, Stiner MC, Güleç E (1999) Initial Upper Palaeolithic in south-central Turkey and its regional context: a preliminary report. Antiquity 73:505–517

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn SL, Stiner MC, Reese DS, Güleç E (2001) Ornaments of the earliest Upper Palaeolithic: new insights from the Levant. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 98:7641–7646

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leroi-Gourhan A (1995) Préhistoire de l’art occidental. Éditions d’art Lucien Mazenod, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  • Leroi-Gourhan Arl, Leroi-Gourhan A (1964) Chronologie des grottes d’Arcy-sur-Cure (Yonne) Gallia Préhistoire 7:1–64

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis-Williams D (2002) The mind in the Cave. Thames and Hudson, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Locht JLD (2002) Bettencourt-Saint-Ouen (Somme)- Cinq occupations paléolithiques au début de la dernière glaciation. (DAF, 90). Editions de la MSH, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  • Lombard M, Phillipson L (2010) Indications of bow and stone-tipped arrow use 64,000 years ago in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Antiquity 84(325):635–648

    Google Scholar 

  • Longo L, Boaretto E, Caramelli D, Giunti P, Lari M, Milani L, Mannino MA, Sala B, Hohlenstein UT, Condemi S (2011) Did Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans coexist in Northern Italy during the late MIS 3? Quat Int. doi:10.1016/j. quaint.2011.08.008

    Google Scholar 

  • Lorblanchet M (1999) La naissance de l’art. Genèse de l’art préhistorique dans le monde. Éditions Errance, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackay A, Welz A (2008) Engraved ochre from a Middle Stone Age context at Klein Kliphuis in the Western Cape of South Africa. J Archaeol Sci 35:1521–1532

    Google Scholar 

  • Mania D (1990) Auf den Spuren der Urmenschen. Die Funde aus der Steinrinne von Bilzingsleben. Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaft, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  • Mania D, Toepfer V (1973) Königsaue. Gliederung, Ökologie, mittelpaläolithische Funde der letzten Eiszeit. Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  • Mania D, Thomae M, Litt T, Weber T (1990) Neumark – Gröbern. Beiträge zur Jagd des mittelpaläolithischen Menschen. Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  • Mann A (2003) The origins of spoken language in human evolution. In: From tools to symbols, from early hominids to modern humans, proceedings of the international round table, Johannesburg

    Google Scholar 

  • Marean M (2005) From the tropics to the colder climates: contrasting faunal exploitation adaptations of modern humans and Neanderthals. In: d’Errico F, Blackwell L (eds) From tools to symbols: from early hominids to modern humans. Witwatersrand University Press, Johannesburg, pp 333–371

    Google Scholar 

  • Marean CW, Assefa Z (1999) Zooarchaeological evidence for the faunal exploitation behavior of Neandertals and early modern humans. Evol Anthropol 8:22–37

    Google Scholar 

  • Marean CW, Kim SY (1998) Mousterian large-mammal remains from Kobeh Cave. Behavioral implications for Neanderthals and early modern humans. With comments. Curr Anthropol 39(Suppl):S79–S113

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazza PPA et al (2006) A new Palaeolithic discovery: tar-hafted stone tools in a European Mid-Pleistocene bone-bearing bed. J Archaeol Sci 33:1310–1318

    Google Scholar 

  • McBrearty S, Brooks AS (2000) The revolution that wasn’t: a new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior. J Hum Evol 39:453–563

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McBurney CBM (1967) The Haua Fteah (Cyrenaica) and the Stone Age of the South-East Mediterranean. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Meignen L (2011) Contribution of Hayonim cave assemblages to the understanding of the so-called “Early Levantine Mousterian”. In: Le Tensorer JM (ed) The Paleolithic in the near east and neighbouring regions. ERAUL, Liège

    Google Scholar 

  • Mellars P (2005) The impossible coincidence: a single species model for the origins of modern human behavior in Europe. Evol Anthropol 14:12–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Meller H (ed) (2003) Geisteskraft. Alt- und Mittelpaläolithikum. Begleithefte zur Daueraussstellung im Lamndesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle 1. Halle (Saale): Landesamt für Archäologie – Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Sachsen-Anhalt

    Google Scholar 

  • Morse K (1993) Shell beads from Mandu Mandu Creek rock-shelter Cape Range peninsula Western Australia dated before 30,000 BP. Antiquity 67:877–883

    Google Scholar 

  • Münzel SC, Conard NJ (2004) Change and continuity in subsistence during the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic in the Ach Valley of Swabia (South-West Germany). Int J Osteoarchaeol 14:225–243

    Google Scholar 

  • Neugebauer-Maresch C (1989) Zum Neufund einer weiblichen Statuette an der Aurignac-Station Stratzing/Krems-Rehberg, Niederösterreich. Germania 67:551–559

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Connell JF, Allen J (1998) When did humans first arrive in Greater Australia and why is it important to know? Evol Anthropol 6:132–146

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Connell JF, Allen J (2004) Dating the colonization of Sahul (Pleistocene Australia-New Guinea): a review of recent research. J Archaeol Sci 31:835–853

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Connell JF, Hawkes K, Blurton Jones NG (1988) Hadza scavenging: implications for Plio/Pleistocene hominid subsistence. Curr Anthropol 29:356–363

    Google Scholar 

  • Oakley KP, Andrews P, Keeley LH, Clark JD (1977) A reappraisal of the Clacton spearpoint. Proc Prehist Soc 43:13–30

    Google Scholar 

  • Ono A (2013) Modern hominids in the Japanese Islands and the early use of obsidian: the case of Onbase Islet. In: Sanz N (ed) Human origin sites and the World Heritage Convention in Asia. UNESCO, Paris, p 156

    Google Scholar 

  • Ono A, Owen LR (2005) Distorting the past: gender and the division of labor in the European Upper Palaeolithic. Kerns Verlag, Tübingen

    Google Scholar 

  • Parkington J (2001) Milestones: the impact of systematic exploitation of marine foods on human evolution. In: Tobias PV, Raath MA, Moggi-Cechi J, Doyle GA (eds) Humanity from African naissance to coming millennia. Firenze University Press, Firenze and Witwatersrand University Press, Johannesburg, pp 327–336

    Google Scholar 

  • Parkington J, Poggenpoel C, Rigaud J-P, Texier P-J (2005) From tool to symbol: the behavioural context of intentionally marked ostrich eggshells from Diepkloof Western Cape. In: d’Errico F, Blackwell L (eds) From tools to symbols: from early Hominids to modern humans. Witwatersrand University Press, Johannesburg, pp 475–492

    Google Scholar 

  • Pawlik A, Thissen J (2011) Hafted armatures and multi-component tool design at the Micoquian site of Inden-Altdorf, Germany. J Archaeol Sci 38:1699–1708

    Google Scholar 

  • Pei WZ (1939) The Upper Cave industry of choukoutien. Peking Geological Survey of China, Beijing

    Google Scholar 

  • Porraz G, Parkington JE, Rigaud J-P, Miller CE, Poggenpoel C, Tribolo C et al (2013) The MSA sequence of Diepkloof and the history of southern African Late Pleistocene populations. J Archaeol Sci 40(9):3542–3552

    Google Scholar 

  • Prüfer K, Racimo F, Patterson N, Jay F, Sankararaman S, Sawyer S et al (2013) The complete genome sequence of a Neanderthal from the Altai Mountains. Nature 505(7481):43–49

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rendu W, Bourguignon L, Costamagno S, Meignen L, Soulier M-C, Armand D, Beauval C, David F, Griggo C, Jaubert J, Maureille B, Park S-J (2011) Mousterian hunting camps: interdisciplinary approach and methodological considerations. In: Bon F, Costamagno S, Valdeyron N (eds) Hunting camps in prehistory. Current archaeological approaches. Proceedings of the international symposium, 13–15 May 2009. University Toulouse II, Le Mirail, pp 61–76

    Google Scholar 

  • Rendu W, Costamagno S, Meignen L, Soulier M-C (2012) Monospecific faunal spectra in Mousterian contexts: implications for social behavior. Quat Int 247:50–58

    Google Scholar 

  • Rendu W, Beauval C, Crevecoeur I, Bayle P, Balzeau A, Bismuth T, Bourguignon L, Delfour G, Faivre J-P, Lacrampe-Cuyaubère F, Tavorminac C, Todisco D, Turq A, Maureille B (2013) Evidence supporting an intentional Neandertal burial at La Chapelle-aux-Saints. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. doi:10.1073/pnas.1316780110

    Google Scholar 

  • Révillion S (1994) Les industries laminaires du Paléolithique moyen en Europe septentrionale. Publications du Cerp 5. Université des Sciences et Technologies de Lille, Lille

    Google Scholar 

  • Richter D, Waiblinger J, Rink WJ, Wagner GA (2000) Thermoluminescence electron spin resonance and 14C-dating of the Late Middle and Early Upper Palaeolithic site of Geißenklösterle Cave in Southern Germany. J Archaeol Sci 27:71–89

    Google Scholar 

  • Riek G (1934) Die Eiszeitjägerstation am Vogelherd im Lonetal I: Die Kulturen. Akademische Buchhandlung Franz F. Heine, Tübingen

    Google Scholar 

  • Roebroeks W, Villa P (2010) On the earliest evidence for habitual use of fire in Europe. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 108(13):5209–5214. doi:10.1073/pnas.1018116108

    Google Scholar 

  • Roebroeks W, Kolen J, Rensink E (1988) Planning depth, anticipation and the organization of Middle Palaeolithic technology: the “archaic natives” meet Eve’s descendants. Helinium 28:17–34

    Google Scholar 

  • Roebroeks W, Sier MJ, Kellberg Nielsen T, de Loecker D, Parés JM, Arps CES, Mücher HJ (2012) Use of red ochre by early Neandertals. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 109(6):1889–1894

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rots V (2010) Prehension and hafting traces on flint tools: a methodology. Leuven University Press, Leuven

    Google Scholar 

  • Rots V (2013) Insights into early Middle Palaeolithic tool use and hafting in Western Europe. The functional analysis of level IIa of the early Middle Palaeolithic site of Biache-Saint-Vaast (France). J Archaeol Sci 40:497–506

    Google Scholar 

  • Rots V, Van Peer P, Vermeersch PM (2011) Aspects of tool production, use, and hafting in Palaeolithic assemblages from Northeast Africa. J Hum Evol 60:637–664

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rust A (1950) Die Höhlenfunde von Jabrud (Syrien). Karl Wachholz Verlag, Neumünster

    Google Scholar 

  • Sankararaman S, Mallick S, Dannemann M, Prüfer K, Kelso J, Pääbo S et al (2014) The genomic landscape of Neanderthal ancestry in present-day humans. Nature. doi:10.1038/nature12961

    PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Schäfer J (1996) Die Wertschätzung außergewöhnlicher Gegenstände (non-utilitarian objects) im Alt- und Mittelpaläolithikum. Ethnographisch-Archäologische Zeitschrift 36:173–190

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmid E (1989) Die altsteinzeitliche Elfenbeinstatuette aus der Höhle Stadel im Hohlenstein bei Asselfingen Alb-Donau-Kreis (with contributions by J. Hahn and U. Wolf). Fundberichte aus Baden-Württemberg 14:33–118

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidtgen O, Wagner W (1929) Eine altpaläolithische Jagdstelle bei Wallertheim in Rheinhessen. Notizblatt des Vereins für Erdkunde und der Hessischen Geologischen Landesanstalt zu Darmstadt für das Jahr 1928: V/11. Darmstadt 1929

    Google Scholar 

  • Seeberger F (2002) Steinzeit selbst erleben! Waffen Schmuck und Instrumente-nachgebaut und ausprobiert. Württembergisches Landesmuseum, Stuttgart

    Google Scholar 

  • Seeberger F (2004) Klangwelten der Altsteinzeit. CD edited by Urgeschichtliches Museum Blaubeuren

    Google Scholar 

  • Segre A, Ascenzi A (1984) Fontana Ranuccio: Italy’s earliest Middle Pleistocene hominid site. Curr Anthropol 25:230–233

    Google Scholar 

  • Shea JJ (1988) Spear points from the Middle Palaeolithic of the Levant. J Field Archaeol 15:441–450

    Google Scholar 

  • Shea JJ (1993) Lithic use-wear evidence for hunting in the Levantine Middle Palaeolithic. In: Anderson PC, Beyries S, Otte M, Plisson H (eds) Traces et fonction: les gestes retrouvés. Actes du colloque international de Liège 8-9-10 décembre 1990. ERAUL 50. Université de Liège, Liège. pp 21–30

    Google Scholar 

  • Shea JJ (1998) Neandertal and early modern human behavioral variability. A regional-scale approach to lithic evidence for hunting in the Levantine Mousterian. Curr Anthropol 39(Suppl) S45–S78

    Google Scholar 

  • Shea JJ (2003) Neandertals competition and the origin of modern human behavior in the Levant. Evol Anthropol 12:173–187

    Google Scholar 

  • Shea JJ (2011) Homo sapiens is as Homo sapiens was: behavioral variability versus “behavioral modernity” in Paleolithic Archaeology. Curr Anthropol. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/658067

  • Shennan S (2001) Demography and cultural innovation: a model and its implications for the emergence of modern human culture. Cambridge Archaeol J 11:5–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Singer R, Wymer J (1982) The Middle Stone Age at Klasies River mouth in South Africa. University of Chicago Press, Chicago

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith FH, Trinkaus E, Pettitt PB, Karavanić I, Paunović M (1999) Direct radiocarbon dates for Vindija G1 and Velika Pećina Late Pleistocene hominid remains. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 96:12281–12286

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Solecki RS (1971) Shanidar. The first flower people. Alfred A. Knopf, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Soressi M, McPherron SP, Lenoir M, Dogandzic T, Goldberg P, Jacobs Z, Maigrot Y, Martisius N, Miller CE, Rendu W, Richards MP, Skinner MM, Steele TE, Talamo S, Texier J-P (2013) Neandertals Made the first specialized bone tools in Europe. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 110:14186–14190

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Speth JD (2010) The paleoanthropology and archaeology of big game hunting: protein, fat, or politics. Springer, New York, p 325

    Google Scholar 

  • Speth JD (2013) In: Clark JL, Speth JD (eds) Zooarchaeology and modern human origins: human hunting behavior during the later Pleistocene, Vertebrate paleobiology and paleoanthropology. Springer, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Steele T, Alverez-Fernandez E (2011) Initial investigations into the exploitation of coastal resources in North Africa during the Late Pleistocene at Grottes des Contrebandiers, Morocco. In: Bicho NF, Haws JA, Davis LG (eds) Trekking the shore: changing coastlines and the antiquity of coastal settlement. Springer, New York, pp 383–403

    Google Scholar 

  • Steele TE, Klein RG (2009) Late Pleistocene subsistence strategies and resource intensification in Africa. In: Hublin J-J, Richards M (eds) Evolution of human diets: integrating approaches to the study of Palaeolithic subsistence. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 113–126

    Google Scholar 

  • Steguweit L (2003) Gebrauchsspuren an Artefakten der Hominidenfundstelle Bilzingsleben (Thüringen) Tübinger Arbeiten zur Urgeschichte 2. Verlag Marie Leidorf, Rahden/Westf

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiner MC (1990) The use of mortality patterns in archaeological studies of hominid predatory adaptations. J Anthropol Archaeol 9:305–351

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiner MC (1994) Honor among thieves: a zooarchaeological study of Neandertal ecology. Princeton University Press, Princeton

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiner MC (1999) Palaeolithic mollusc exploitation at Riparo Mochi (Balzi Rossi Italy): food and ornaments from the Aurignacian through Epigravettian. Antiquity 73:735–754

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiner MC (2005) The faunas of Hayonim Cave (Israel): a 200,000-year record of Paleolithic diet, demography and society, American school of prehistoric research bulletin 48. Peabody Museum, Cambridge, MA

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiner MC (2013) An unshakable Middle Paleolithic? Trends versus conservatism in the predatory niche and their social ramifications. In: Kuhn SL, Hovers E (eds) Alternative pathways to complexity: evolutionary trajectories in the Middle Paleolithic and Middle Stone Age in Wenner-Gren symposium supplement 8. Curr Anthropol 54:S8. doi:10.1086/673285

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiner M, Munro ND, Surovell TA, Tchernov E, Bar-Yosef O (1999) Paleolithic population growth pulses evidenced by small animal exploitation. Science 283:190–194

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Talamo S, Soressi M, Roussel M, Richards M, Hublin J-J (2012) A radiocarbon chronology for the complete Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transitional sequence of Les Cottés (France). J Archaeol Sci 39:175–183

    Google Scholar 

  • Texier P-J, Porraz G, Parkington J, Rigaud J-P, Poggenpoel C, Miller C, Tribolo C, Cartwright C, Coudenneau A, Klein R, Steele T, Verna C (2010) A Howiesons Poort tradition of engraving ostrich eggshell containers dated to 60,000 years ago at Diepkloof Rock Shelter, South Africa. Proc Natl Acad Sci 107:6180–6185

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thieme H (1999) Altpaläolithische Holzgeräte aus Schöningen Lkr. Helmstedt. Germania 77:451–487

    Google Scholar 

  • Thieme H (ed) (2007) Die Schöninger Speere – Mensch und Jagd vor 400.000 Jahren. Theiss Verlag, Stuttgart

    Google Scholar 

  • Thieme H, Veil S (1985) Neue Untersuchungen zum eemzeitlichen Elefanten-Jagdplatz Lehringen Ldkr. Verden. Die Kunde N. F. 36:11–58

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorne A, Grün R, Mortimer G, Spooner NA, Simpson JJ, McCulloch M, Taylor L, Curnoe D (1999) Australia’s oldest human remains: age of the Lake Mungo 3 skeleton. J Hum Evol 36(6):591–612

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tribolo C, Mercier N, Douville E, Joron J-L, Reyss J-L, Rufer D, Cantin N, Lefrais Y, Miller CE, Parkington J, Porraz G, Rigaud J-P, Texier P-J (2013) OSL and TL dating of the Middle Stone Age sequence of Diepkloof Rock Shelter (Western Cape, South Africa): a clarification. J Archaeol Sci 40:3401–3411

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Trinkaus E (1983) The Shanidar Neandertals. Academic, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Turk I (1997) Moustérienska “koščena piščal” in druge najdbe iz Divjih bab I v Sloveniji/Mousterian ‘bone flute’ and other finds from Divje babe I cave site in Slovenia Ljubljana. Opera Instituti Archaeologici Sloveniae 2. Znanstvenoraziskovalni center SAZU, Ljubljana

    Google Scholar 

  • Turk I (ed) Moustérienska »koščena Thieme H (1997) Lower Palaeolithic hunting spears from Germany. Nature 385:807–810

    Google Scholar 

  • van Kolfschoten T (2014) The Palaeolithic locality Schöningen (Germany): a review of the mammalian record. Quat Int 01:S326–S327:469–480

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Peer P, Rots V, Vroomans J-M (2004) A story of colourful diggers and grinders: the Sangoan and Lupemban at site 8-B-11: Sai Island Northern Sudan. Before Farm 3:139–166

    Google Scholar 

  • Vandermeersch B (1969) Découverte d’un objet en ocre avec traces d’utilisation dans le Moustérien de Qafzeh (Israel). Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française 66:157–158

    Google Scholar 

  • Vanhaeran M, d’Errico F, Stringer C, James SL, Todd JA, Mienis HK (2006) Middle Paleolithic shell beads in Israel and Algeria. Science 312(5781):1785–1788

    Google Scholar 

  • Vanhaeren M (2002) Les fonctions de la parure au Paléolithique supérieur: de l’individu à l’unité culturelle. Unpublished PhD thesis, Université de Bordeaux I

    Google Scholar 

  • Vaquero M, Chacón G, Fernández C, Martínez K, Rando JM (2001) Intrasite spatial patterning and transport in the Abric Romaní Middle Palaeolithic site (Capellades Barcelona Spain). In: Conard NJ (ed) Settlement dynamics of the Middle Palaeolithic and Middle Stone Age, Tübingen publications in prehistory. Kerns Verlag, Tübingen, pp 376–392

    Google Scholar 

  • Vaquero M, Rando JM, Chacón G (2004) Neanderthal spatial behavior and social structure: hearth-related assemblages from the Abric Romaní Middle Palaeolithic Site. In: Conard NJ (ed) Settlement dynamics of the Middle Palaeolithic and Middle Stone Age II, Tübingen publications in prehistory. Kerns Verlag, Tübingen, pp 573–595

    Google Scholar 

  • Vértes L (1964) Tata. Eine mittelpaläolithische Travertin-Siedlung in Ungarn. Akademie der Wissenschaften, Budapest

    Google Scholar 

  • Voelker AHL, Grootes PM, Nadeau M-J, Sarnthein M (2000) Radiocarbon levels in the Iceland Sea from 25–53 kyr and their link to the earth’s magnetic field intensity. Radiocarbon 42:437–452

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vogelsang R (1998) Middle Stone Age Fundstellen in Südwest-Namibia, Africa Praehistorica 11. Heinrich-Barth-Institute, Cologne

    Google Scholar 

  • Voormolen B (2008) Ancient hunters, modern butchers. Schöningen 13II-4, a kill-butchery site dating from the northwest European Lower Palaeolithic Leiden. PhD thesis, Leiden University

    Google Scholar 

  • Wadley L (2001) What is cultural modernity? A general view and a South African perspective from Rose Cottage Cave. Cambridge Archaeol J 11:201–221

    Google Scholar 

  • Wadley L (2005) Putting Ochre to the test: replication studies of adhesives that may have been used for hafting tools in the Middle Stone Age. J Hum Evol 49:587–601

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wadley L, Hodgskiss T, Grant M (2009) Implications for complex cognition from the hafting of tools with compound adhesives in the Middle Stone Age, South Africa. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106(24):9590–9594

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wadley L, Sievers C, Bamford M, Goldberg P, Berna F, Miller C (2011) Middle Stone Age bedding construction and settlement patterns at Sibudu, South Africa. Science 334(6061):1388–1391

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wagner E (1983) Das Mittelpaläolithikum der Großen Grotte bei Blaubeuren (Württemberg). Konrad Theiss Verlag, Stuttgart

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang Y (2005) The roots of pleistocene hominids and cultures in China. Science Press, Beijing

    Google Scholar 

  • Watts I (1998) The origin of symbolic culture: the Middle Stone Age of southern Africa and Khoisan ethnography. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London

    Google Scholar 

  • Watts I (2002) Ochre in the Middle Stone Age of southern Africa: ritualised display or hide preservative? S Afr Archaeol Bull 57(175):1–14

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiner J, Floss H (2004) Eine Schwefelkiesknolle aus dem Aurignacien vom Vogelherd Baden-Württemberg: Zu den Anfängen der Feuererzeugung im europäischen Paläolithikum. Archäologische Informationen 27:59–78

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weiß C (2000) Die Artefakte aus Straußenei der Mumbahöhle Tansania (Schicht III). Unpublished MA thesis, University of Tübingen, Tübingen

    Google Scholar 

  • Wetzel R, Bosinski G (1969) Die Bocksteinschmiede im Lonetal Verlag Müller und Gräff: Stuttgart Veröffentlichungen der Staatlichen Amtes für Denkmalpflege Stuttgart Reihe A, Vor und Frühgeschichte, Heft, 15

    Google Scholar 

  • White R (2000) Personal ornaments from the Grotte du Renne at Arcy-sur-Cure. Athena Rev 2(4):41–46

    Google Scholar 

  • White R, Mensan R, Bourrillon R, Cretin C, Higham TFG, Clark AE, Sisk ML, Tartar E, Gardère P, Goldberg P, Pelegrin J, Valladas H, Tisnérat-Laborde N, de Sanoit J, Chambellan D, Chiotti L (2012) Context and dating of Aurignacian vulvar representations from Abri Castanet, France. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. doi:10.1073/pnas.1119663109

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiessner P (1983) Style and social information in Kalahari San projectile points. Am Antiquity 48:253–276

    Google Scholar 

  • Will M, Parkington JE, Kandel AW, Conard NJ (2013) Coastal adaptations and the Middle Stone Age lithic assemblages from Hoedjiespunt 1 in the Western Cape, South Africa. J Hum Evol 64:518–537

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wojtczak D (2011) Hummal (Central Syria) and its eponymous industry. In: Le Tensorer J-M, Jagher R, Otte M (eds) The Lower and Middle Palaeolithic in the Middle East and neighbouring regions, vol 126. ERAUL, Liége, pp 289–307

    Google Scholar 

  • Wynn T (1995) Handaxe enigmas. World Archaeol 27:10–24

    Google Scholar 

  • Zilhão J (2001) Anatomically archaic, behaviorally modern: the last Neanderthals and their destiny. 23. Kroon-Voordracht. Joh. Enschedé, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Zilhão J et al (2010) Symbolic use of marine shells and mineral pigments by Iberian Neandertals. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 107(3):1023–1028

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Eberhard-Karls-Universität Tübingen, Institut für Ur- und Frühgeschichte, Abteilung Ältere Urgeschichte und Quartärökologie, Schloss Hohentübingen, Tübingen, D-72070, Germany

    Nicholas Conard

Authors
  1. Nicholas Conard
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nicholas Conard .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Inst. Anthropologie, Universität Mainz FB 10 (1050), Mainz, Germany

    Winfried Henke

  2. American Museum of Natural History Division of Anthropology, New York, New York, USA

    Ian Tattersall

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this entry

Cite this entry

Conard, N. (2013). Cultural Evolution in Africa and Eurasia During the Middle and Late Pleistocene. In: Henke, W., Tattersall, I. (eds) Handbook of Paleoanthropology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-27800-6_66-2

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-27800-6_66-2

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-642-27800-6

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference Biomedicine and Life SciencesReference Module Biomedical and Life Sciences

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation