Skip to main content

Biosynthesis and Regulation of Flower Scent

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Book cover Plant Developmental Biology - Biotechnological Perspectives

Abstract

Floral scents have caught our attention since antiquity, and the admiration for fragrances has resulted in the creation of many perfumes and cosmetics. Research continuously discovers new volatiles. This review addresses floral scent composition and its relation to specific pollinators, as well as the involvement of floral volatiles in defense reactions. Important for efficient plant pollination is the precise timing of scent emission, which is summarized under the topic of the floral scent clock and circadian regulation. Recent research has resulted in the elucidation of the underlying biosynthetic pathways, and the steps involved in the regulation of scent synthesis and emission. Some biotechnological applications of scent-synthesizing enzymes are reviewed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Altenburger R, Matile P (1988) Circadian rhythmicity of fragrance emission in flowers of Hoya carnosa R. Br. Planta 174:248–252

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Altenburger R, Matile P (1990) Further observations on rhythmic emission of fragrance in flowers. Planta 180:194–197

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Aranovich D, Lewinsohn E, Zaccai M (2007) Post-harvest enhancement of aroma in transgenic lisanthus (Eustoma grandiflorum) using the Clarkia breweri benzyl alcohol acetyltransferase (BEAT) gene. Postharv Biol Technol 473:255–260

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Beekwilder J, Alvarez-Huerta M, Neef E, Verstappen FWA, Bouwmeester HJ, Aharoni A (2004) Functional characterization of enzymes forming volatile esters from strawberry and banana. Plant Physiol 134:1865–1875

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ben Zvi MM, Negre-Zakharov F, Masci T, Ovadis M, Shklarman E, Ben-Meir H, Tzfira T, Dudareva N, Vainstein A (2008) Interlinking showy traits: co-engineering of scent and colour biosynthesis in flowers. Plant Biotechnol J 6:403–415

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bergougnoux V, Caissard JC, Jullien F, Magnard JL, Scalliet G, Cock JM, Hugueney P, Baudino S (2007) Both the adaxial and abaxial epidermal layers of the rose petal emit volatile scent compounds. Planta 226:853–866

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bergström G, Dobson HEM, Groth I (1995) Spatial fragrance patterns within the flowers of Ranunculus acris (Ranunculaceae). Plant Syst Evol 195:221–242

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boatright J, Negre F, Chen X, Kish CM, Wood B, Peel G, Orlova I, Gang D, Rhodes D, Dudareva N (2004) Understanding in vivo benzenoid metabolism in petunia petal tissue. Plant Physiol 135:1993–2011

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Custódio L, Serra H, Ngueira JMF, Gonçalves S, Romano A (2006) Analysis of the volatiles emitted by whole flowers and isolated flower organs of the carob tree using HS-SPME-GC/MS. J Chem Ecol 32:929–942

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dafny-Yelin M, Guterman I, Ovadis NMM, Shalit M, Pichersky E, Zamir D, Lewinsohn E, Weiss ZAD, Vainstein A (2005) Flower proteome: changes in protein spectrum during advanced changes in rose petal development. Planta 222:37–46

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • D’Auria JC, Chen F, Pichersky E (2002) Characterization of an acyltransferase capable of synthesizing benzylbenzoate and other volatile esters in flowers and damaged leaves of Clarkia breweri. Plant Physiol 130:466–476

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dexter R, Qualley A, Kish DM, Ma CJ, Koeduka T, Nagegowda DA, Dudareva N, Pichersky E, Clark D (2007) Characterization of a petunia acetyltransferase involved in the biosynthesis of the floral volatile isoeugenol. Plant J 49:265–275

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dobson HEM (2006) Relationship between floral fragrance composition and type of pollinator. In: Dudareva N, Pichersky E (eds) Biology of floral scent. Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL, pp 147–198

    Google Scholar 

  • Dobson HEM, Bergström G (2000) The ecology and evolution of pollen odors. Plant Syst Evol 222:63–87

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dötterl S, Jürgens A (2005) Spatial fragrance patterns in flowers of Silene latifolia: lilac compounds as olfactory nectar guides? Plant Syst Evol 255:99–109

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dudareva N, Pichersky E (2008) Metabolic engineering of plant volatiles. Curr Opin Biotechnol 19:1–9

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dudareva N, D’Auria JC, Nam KH, Raguso RA, Pichersky E (1998) Acetyl-CoA:benzylalcohol acetyltransferase – an enzyme involved in floral scent production in Clarkia breweri. Plant J 14:297–304

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dudareva N, Murfitt LM, Mann CJ, Gorenstein N, Kolosova N, Kish CM, Bonham C, Wood K (2000) Developmental regulation of methyl benzoate biosynthesis and emission in snapdragon flowers. Plant Cell 12:949–961

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dudareva N, Martin D, Kish CM, Kolosova N, Gorenstein N, Fäldt J, Miller B, Bohlmann J (2003) (E)-β-ocimene and myrcene synthase genes of floral scent biosynthesis in snapdragon: function and expression of three terpene synthase genes of a new terpene synthase subfamily. Plant Cell 15:1227–1241

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dudareva N, Pichersky E, Gershenzon J (2004) Biochemistry of plant volatiles. Plant Physiol 135:1893–1902

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dunkel M, Schmidt U, Struck S, Berger L, Gruening B, Hossbach J, Jäger I, Effmert U, Piechulla B, Erikson R, Knudsen J, Preissner R (2009) Super Scent – a database of flavours and scents. Nucleic Acid Res 37:D291–D294

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Effmert U, Große J, Röse URS, Ehrig F, Kägi R, Piechulla B (2005a) Volatile composition, emission pattern and localization of floral scent emission in Mirabilis jalapa (Nyctaginaceae). Am J Bot 92:2–12

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Effmert U, Saschenbrecker S, Ross J, Negre F, Fraser CM, Noel JP, Dudareva N, Piechulla B (2005b) Floral benzenoid carboxyl methyltransferases: from in vitro to in planta function. Phytochemistry 66:1211–1230

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Effmert U, Buss D, Rohrbeck D, Piechulla B (2006) Localization of the synthesis and emission of scent compounds within the flower. In: Dudareva N, Pichersky E (eds) Biology of floral scent. Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL, pp 105–124

    Google Scholar 

  • Effmert U, Dinse C, Piechulla B (2008) Influence of green leaf herbivory by Manduca sexta on floral volatiles emission by Nicotiana suaveolens. Plant Physiol 146:1996–2007

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • El Tamer MK, Smeets M, Holthuysen N, Lücker J, Tang A, Roozen J, Bouwmeester HJ, Voragen AGJ (2003) The influence of monoterpene synthase transformation on the odour of tobacco. J Biotechnol 106:15–21

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Euler M, Baldwin IT (1996) The chemistry of defense and apparency in the corollas of Nicotiana attenuata. Oecologia 107:102–112

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flamini G, Cioni PL, Morelli I (2003) Differences in the fragrances of pollen, leaves and floral parts of garland (Chrysanthemum coronarium) and composition of the essential oils from flowerheads and leaves. J Agric Food Chem 51:2267–2271

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guterman I, Shalit M, Menda N, Piestun D, Dafny-Yelin M, Shalev G, Bar E, Davydov O, Ovadis M, Emanuel M, Wang J, Adam Z, Pichersky E, Lewinsohn E, Zamir D, Vainstein A, Weiss D (2002) Rose scent: genomics approach to discovering novel floral fragrance-related genes. Plant Cell 14:2325–2338

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guterman I, Masci T, Chen X, Negre F, Pichersky E, Dudareva N, Weiss D, Vainstein A (2006) Generation of phenylpropanoid pathway-derived volatiles in transgenic plants: rose alcohol acetyltransferase produces phenylethyl acetate and benzyl acetate in petunia flowers. Plant Mol Biol 60:555–563

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hanstedt L, Jacobsen HB, Olsen CE (1994) Influence of temperature on the rhythmic emission of volatiles from Ribes nigrum flowers in situ. Plant Cell Environ 17:1069–1072

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Helsper JPFG, Davies JA, Bourmeester HJ, Krol AF, van Kampen MH (1998) Circadian rhythmicity in emission of volatile compounds by flowers of Rosa hybrida L. cv. Honesty. Planta 207:88–95

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hendel-Rahmanim K, Masci T, Vainstein A, Weiss D (2007) Diurnal regulation of scent emission in rose flowers. Planta 226:1491–1499

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoballah ME, Suurman J, Turlings TCJ, Guerin PM, Connetable S, Kuhlemeier C (2005) The composition and timing of flower odour emission by wild Petunia axillaris coincides with the antennal perception and nocturnal activity of the pollinator Manduca sexta. Planta 222:141–150

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jones ML, Woodson WR (1999) Interorgan signaling following pollination in carnations. J Am Soc Hort Sci 124:598–604

    Google Scholar 

  • Jürgens A, Witt T, Gottsberger G (2002) Flower scent composition in night-flowering Silene species (Caryophyllaceae). Biochem System Ecol 30:383–397

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaiser R (1993) The scent of orchids. Elsevier, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaiser R (2006) Meaningful scents around the world. Wiley-VCH, Zürich

    Google Scholar 

  • Knudsen JT, Eriksson R, Gershenzon J, Stahl B (2006) Diversity and distribution of floral scent. Bot Rev 72:1–120

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kolosova N, Gorenstein N, Kish CM, Dudareva N (2001) Regulation of circadian methyl benzoate emission in diurnally and nocturnally emitting plants. Plant Cell 13:2333–2347

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lavy M, Zuker A, Lewinsohn E, Larkov O, Ravid U, Vainstein A, Weiss D (2002) Linalool and linalool oxide production in transgenic carnation flowers expressing the Clarkia breweri linalool synthase gene. Mol Breed 9:103–111

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Levin RA, Raguso RA, McDade LA (2001) Fragrance chemistry and pollinator affinities in Nyctaginaceae. Phytochemistry 58:429–440

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Loughrin JH, Hamilton-Kemp TR, Andersen RA, Hildebrand DF (1990) Volatiles from flowers of Nicotiana sylvestris, N. otophora and Malus x domestica: headspace components and day/night changes in their relative concentrations. Phytochemistry 29:2473–2477

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Loughrin JH, Hamilton-Kemp TR, Andersen RA, Hildebrand DF (1991) Circadian rhythm of volatile emission from flowers of Nicotiana sylvestris and N. suaveolens. Physiol Plant 83:492–496

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Loughrin JH, Hamilton-Kemp TR, Burton HR, Andersen RA (1993) Effect of diurnal sampling on the headspace composition of detached Nicotiana suaveolens flowers. Phytochemistry 32:1417–1419

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Loughrin JH, Manukian A, Heath RR, Turlings TCJ, Tumlinson JH (1994) Diurnal cycle of emission of induced volatile terpenoids by herbivore-injured cotton plants. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91:11836–11840

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lücker J, Bouwmeester HJ, Schwab W, Blaas J, van der Plas LHW, Verhoeven HA (2001) Expression of Clarkia S-linalool synthase in transgenic petunia plants results in the accumulation of S-linalyl-β-D-glucopyranoside. Plant J 27:315–324

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lücker J, Schwab W, van Hautum B, Blaas J, van der Plas LHW, Bouwmeester HJ, Verhoeven HA (2004a) Increased and altered fragrance of tobacco plants after metabolic engineering using three monoterpene synthases from lemon. Plant Physiol 134:510–519

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lücker J, Schwab W, Franssen MCR, van der Plas LHW, Bouwmeester HJ, Verhoeven HA (2004b) Metabolic engineering of monoterpene biosynthesis:two-step production of (+)-trans-isopiperitenol by tobacco. Plant J 39:135–145

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Matile P, Altenburger R (1988) Rhythms of fragrance emission in flowers. Planta 174:242–247

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miyake T, Yamaoka R, Yahara T (1998) Floral scents of hawkmoth-pollinated flowers in Japan. J Plant Res 111:199–205

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nagegowda DA, Gutensohn M, Wilkerson CG, Dudareva N (2008) Two nearly identical terpene synthases catalyze the formation of nerolidol and linalool in snapdragon flowers. Plant J 55:224–239

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nielsen JK, Jacobsen HB, Friis P, Hansen K, Møller J, Olsen CE (1995) Asynchronous rhythms in the emission of volatiles from Hesperis matronalis flowers. Phytochemistry 38:847–851

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nilsson LA (1978) Pollination ecology and adaptation in Platanthera chlorantha (Orchidaceae). Bot Notiser 131:35–51

    Google Scholar 

  • Orlova I, Marshall-Colón A, Schnepp J, Wood B, Varbanova M, Fridman E, Blakeslee JJ, Peer WA, Murphy AS, Rhodes D, Pichersky E, Dudareva N (2006) Reduction of benzenoid synthesis in petunia flowers reveals multiple pathways to benzoic acid and enhancement in auxin transport. Plant Cell 18:3458–3475

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Overland L (1960) Endogenous rhythm in opening and odor of flowers of Cestrum nocturnum. Am J Bot 47:378–382

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oyama-Okubo N, Ando T, Watanabe N, Marchesi E, Uchida K, Nkayama M (2005) Emission mechanism of floral scent in Petunia axillaris. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 69:773–777

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pecetti L, Tava A (2000) Effect of flower color and sampling time on volatile emanation in alfalfa flowers. Crop Sci 40:126–130

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips MA, D’Auria JC, Gershenzon J, Pichersky E (2008) The Arabidopsis thaliana type I isopentenyl diphosphate isomerases are targeted to multiple subcellular compartments and have overlapping functions in isoprenoid biosynthesis. Plant Cell 20:677–696

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pichersky E, Dudareva N (2007) Scent engineering: toward the goal of controlling how flowers smell. Trends Biotechnol 25:105–110

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pichersky E, Raguso RA, Lewinsohn E, Croteau R (1994) Floral scent production in Clarkia (Onagraceae). Localization and developmental modulation of monoterpene emission and linalool synthase activity. Plant Physiol 106:1533–1540

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pichersky E, Lewinsohn E, Croteau R (1995) Purification and characterization of S-linalool synthase, an enzyme involved in the production of floral scent in Clarkia breweri. Arch Biochem Biophys 316:803–807

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Picman A (1986) Biological activities of sequiterpene lactones. Biochem Syst Ecol 14:255–281

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Picone JM, MacTavish HS, Clery RA (2002) Emission of floral volatiles from Mahonia japonica (Berberidaceae). Phytochemistry 60:611–617

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Picone JM, Clery RA, Watanabe N, MacTavish HS, Turnbull CGN (2004) Rhythmic emission of floral volatiles from Rosa damascena semperflorens cv. ‘Quatre Saisons’. Planta 219:468–478

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pott MB, Pichersky E, Piechulla B (2002) Evening specific oscillations of scent emission, SAMT enzyme activity, and SAMT mRNA in flowers of Stephanotis floribunda. J Plant Physiol 159:925–934

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pott MB, Hippauf F, Saschenbrecker S, Chen F, Ross J, Kiefer I, Slusarenko A, Noel JP, Pichersky E, Effmert U, Piechulla B (2004) Biochemical and structural characterization of benzenoid carboxyl methyltransferases involved in floral scent production in Stephanotis floribunda and Nicotiana suaveolens. Plant Physiol 135:1946–1955

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roeder S, Hartmann AM, Effmert U, Piechulla B (2007) Regulation of simultaneous synthesis of floral scent terpenoids by the 1,8-cineole synthase of Nicotiana suaveolens. Plant Mol Biol 65:107–124

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rohrbeck D, Buss D, Effmert U, Piechulla B (2006) Localization of methyl benzoate synthesis and emission in Stephanotis floribunda and Nicotiana suaveolens flowers. Plant Biol 8:615–626

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Scalliet G, Lionnet C, Le Bechec M, Dutron L, Magnard JL, Baudino S, Bergougnoux V, Jullien F, Chambrier P, Vergne P, Dumas C, Cock JM, Hugueney P (2006) Role of petal-specific orcinol O-methyltransferases in the evolution of rose scent. Plant Physiol 140:18–29

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schiestl JP, Ayasse M (2001) Post-pollination emission of a repellent compound in a sexually deceptive orchid: a new mechanism for maximising reproductive success? Oecologia 126:531–534

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sexton R, Stopford AP, Porter M, Porter AEA (2005) Aroma production from cut sweet pea flowers (Lathyrus odoratus): the role of ethylene. Physiol Plant 124:381–389

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shalit M (2003) Volatile ester formation in roses. Identification of an acetyl-coenzyme A geraniol/citronellol acetyltransferase in developing rose petals. Plant Physiol 131:1868–1876

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shimada T, Endo T, Fujii H, Hara M, Omura M (2005) Isolation and characterization of (E)-β-ocimene and 1,8 cineole synthases in Citrus unshiu Marc. Plant Sci 168:987–995

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spitzer B, Ben Zvi MM, Ovadis M, Marhevka E, Barkai O, Edelbaum O, Marton I, Masci T, Alon M, Morin S, Rogachev I, Aharoni A, Vainstein A (2007) Reverse genetics of floral scent: application of tobacco rattle virus-based gene silencing in petunia. Plant Physiol 145:1241–1250

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Theis N, Raguso RA (2005) The effect of pollination on floral fragrance in thistles. J Chem Ecol 31:2581–2600

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tholl D, Kish CM, Orlova I, Sherman D, Gershenzon J, Pichersky E, Dudareva N (2004) Formation of monoterpenes in Antirrhinum majus and Clarkia breweri flowers involves heterodimeric geranyl diphosphate synthases. Plant Cell 16:977–992

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Underwood BA, Tieman DM, Shibuya K, Dexter RJ, Loucas HM, Simkin AJ, Sims CA, Schmelz EA, Klee HJ, Clark DG (2005) Ethylene-regulated floral volatile synthesis in petunia corollas. Plant Physiol 138:255–266

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vainstein A, Lewinsohn E, Pichersky E, Weiss D (2001) Floral fragrance. New inroads into an old commodity. Plant Physiol 127:1383–1389

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Verdonk JC, Haring MA, van Tunen AJ, Schuurink RC (2005) ODORANT1 regulates fragrance biosynthesis in petunia flowers. Plant Cell 17:1612–1624

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang J, Dudareva N, Bhakta S, Raguso RA, Pichersky E (1997) Floral scent production in Clarkia breweri (Onagraceae): II. Localization and developmental modulation of the enzyme S-adenosyl-L-methionine:(iso)eugenol O-methyltransferase and phenylpropanoid emission. Plant Physiol 114:213–221

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zuker A, Tzfira T, Ben-Meir H, Ovadis M, Shklarman E, Itzhaki H, Forkmann G, Martens S, Neta-Sharir I, Weiss D, Vainstein A (2002) Modification of flower color and fragrance by antisense suppression of the flavone 3-hydroxylase gene. Mol Breed 9:33–41

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to B. Piechulla .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2010 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Piechulla, B., Effmert, U. (2010). Biosynthesis and Regulation of Flower Scent. In: Pua, E., Davey, M. (eds) Plant Developmental Biology - Biotechnological Perspectives. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-04670-4_10

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics