Meditation

Abstract

This entry provides an introduction to the history, methodology, philosophy, science, and various types of meditation, which most traditions and practitioners view as broadening the range of transformative human possibilities and invoking exceptional human experiences. “Meditation” is a multiply ambiguous term, referring to a broad range of practices and mental states, many of which share common elements, such as heightened, focused, or tranquil awareness. While meditative states can arise spontaneously (Dass, Journey of awakening: a meditator’s guidebook. Bantam Books, New York, 1978), meditative traditions teach that a practice of engaging in meditative discipline increases the likelihood of bringing about meditative states. For example, one common meditation practice, one-pointedness, consists of training one's attention to remain focused on a singular object, such as the breath, although any focal point will do. Long-term practitioners report that this practice tends to bring about states of mental quiescence. Various forms of meditative practice have been associated with most of the world’s major religious and spiritual traditions, particularly Buddhism, Hinduism, and Taoism, but monotheistic religions consider prayer a form of meditation. Alongside Yoga, which involves a form of meditation, secular forms of meditation have become increasingly popular in recent years, most prominently mindfulness. Jon Kabat-Zinn popularized mindfulness by creating MBSR, mindfulness-based stress reduction, an 8-week meditation program that studies have shown to have significant results reducing stress. Mindfulness alone has become a multi-billion-dollar industry, a fact bemoaned by traditional practitioners and others, who object that the practice endorses the idea that the appropriate way to deal with external stressors, such as societal injustice, is to alter one’s internal responses, as opposed to altering external conditions. This entry examines all of these ideas in some depth.