Abstract
Cholangiocarcinoma represents a spectrum of biliary tract adenocarcinoma, including intrahepatic and extrahepatic disease. A rare malignancy with recognized risk factors, the genomic spectra of the disease, is still being defined. Symptomatically silent in the early stages, cholangiocarcinoma manifests a very poor prognosis with many patients having advanced disease at presentation. Surgery represents the only curative approach. Unfortunately, only a minority of patients have resectable disease. Both resected and non-resected patients are offered a variety of chemotherapy regimens with randomized clinical trials having recently reported. Preoperative (neoadjuvant) chemotherapy and orthotopic liver transplantation are not standard treatment protocol at the current time. We conclude this chapter with a discussion of ongoing and future research.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Nagorney DM, Pawlik TM, Chun YS, et al. Perihilar bile ducts. In: Amin MB, editor. AJCC cancer staging manual. 8th ed. Chicago: AJCC; 2017. p. 312.
DeOliveira ML, Cunningham SC, Cameron JL, et al. Cholangiocarcinoma: thirty-one-year experience with 564 patients at a single institution. Ann Surg. 2007;245(5):755.
Bismuth H, Nakache R, Diamond T. Management strategies in resection for hilar cholangiocarcinoma. Ann Surg. 1992;215(1):31.
Edge SB, Byrd DR, Compton CC, et al., editors. American Joint Committee on Cancer staging manual. 7th ed. New York: Springer; 2010. p. 201.
Janargin WR, Fong Y, DeMatteo RP, et al. Staging, resectability and outcome in 225 patients with hilar cholangiocarcinoma. Ann Surg. 2001;234(4):507–17.
Vauthey JN, Blumgart LH. Recent advances in the management of cholangiocarcinomas. Semin Liver Dis. 1994;14(2):109.
Shaib YH, El-Serag HB, Davila JA, Morgan R, McGlynn KA. Risk factors of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma in the United States: a case-control study. Gastroenterology. 2005;128(3):620.
Henson DE, Albores-Saavedra J, Corle D. Carcinoma of the extrahepatic bile ducts. Histologic types, stage of disease, grade, and survival rates. Cancer. 1992;70(6):1498.
Chapman RW. Risk factors for biliary tract carcinogenesis. Ann Oncol. 1999;10(Suppl 4):308.
Bergquist A, Ekbom A, Olsson R, et al. Hepatic and extrahepatic malignancies in primary sclerosing cholangitis. J Hepatol. 2002;36(3):321.
Lipsett PA, Pitt HA, Colombani PM, Boitnott JK, Cameron JL. Choledochal cyst disease. A changing pattern of presentation. Ann Surg. 1994;220(5):644.
Hsing AW, Gao YT, Han TQ, et al. Gallstones and the risk of biliary tract cancer: a population-based study in China. Br J Cancer. 2007;97(11):1577.
Mahale P, Torres HA, Kramer JR, Hwang LY, Li R, Brown EL, Engels EA. Hepatitis C virus infection and the risk of cancer among elderly US adults: a registry-based case-control study. Cancer. 2017;123(7):1202. Epub 2017 Jan 24.
Watanapa P, Watanapa WB. Liver fluke-associated cholangiocarcinoma. Br J Surg. 2002;89(8):962.
Cardinale V, Carpino G, Reid L, Gaudio E, Alvaro D. Multiple cells of origin in cholangiocarcinoma underlie biological, epidemiological and clinical heterogeneity. World J Gastrointest Oncol. 2012;4:94–102.
Cardinale V, et al. Profiles of cancer stem cell subpopulations in cholangiocarcinomas. Am J Pathol. 2015;185:1724–39.
Nakanishi Y, Zen Y, Kondo S, Itoh T, Itatsu K, Nakanuma Y. Expression of cell cycle-related molecules in biliary premalignant lesions: biliary intraepithelial neoplasia and biliary intraductal papillary neoplasm. Hum Pathol. 2008;39(8):1153.
Isa T, Tomita S, Nakachi A, Miyazato H, Shimoji H, Kusano T, Muto Y, Furukawa M. Analysis of microsatellite instability, K-ras gene mutation and p53 protein overexpression in intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. Hepatogastroenterology. 2002;49(45):604.
Arai Y, et al. Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 tyrosine kinase fusions define a unique molecular subtype of cholangiocarcinoma. Hepatology. 2014;59:1427–34.
Borger DR, Tanabe KK, Fan KC, et al. Frequent mutation of isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH)1 and IDH2 in cholangiocarcinoma identified through broad-based tumor genotyping. Oncologist. 2012;17(1):72–9. Epub 2011 Dec 16.
Yoshikawa D, et al. Clinicopathological and prognostic significance of EGFR, VEGF and HER2 expression in cholangiocarcinoma. Br J Cancer. 2008;98:418–25.
Alvaro D, et al. Estrogens and insulin-like growth factor 1 modulate neoplastic cell growth in human cholangiocarcinoma. Am J Pathol. 2006;169:877–88.
Webhe H, Henson R, Meng F, Mize-Berge J, Patel T. Interleukin-6 contributes to growth in cholangiocarcinoma cells by aberrant promoter methylation and gene expression. Cancer Res. 2006;66:10517–24.
Sato Y, et al. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition induced by transforming growth factor B-1/Snail activation aggravates invasive growth of cholangiocarcinoma. Am J Pathol. 2010;177:141–52.
Boulter L, et al. WNT signaling drives cholangiocarcinoma growth and can be pharmacologically inhibited. J Clin Invest. 2015;125:1269–85.
Nakeeb A, Pitt HA, Sohn TA, et al. Cholangiocarcinoma. A spectrum of intrahepatic, perihilar, and distal tumors. Ann Surg. 1996;224(4):463.
Malaguarnera G, Paladina I, Giordano M, Malaguarnera M, Bertino G, Berretta M. Serum markers of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. Dis Markers. 2013;34(4):219.
Kim HJ, Kim MH, Myung SJ, et al. A new strategy for the application of CA19-9 in the differentiation of pancreaticobiliary cancer: analysis using a receiver operating characteristic curve. Am J Gastroenterol. 1999;94(7):1941.
Patel AH, Harnois DM, Klee GG, LaRusso NF, Gores GJ. The utility of CA 19-9 in the diagnoses of cholangiocarcinoma in patients without primary sclerosing cholangitis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2000;95(1):204.
Siqueira E, Schoen RE, Silverman W, et al. Detecting cholangiocarcinoma in patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis. Gastrointest Endosc. 2002;56(1):40.
Maeda T, Adachi E, Kajiyama K, Sugimachi K, Tsuneyoshi M. Combined hepatocellular and cholangiocarcinoma: proposed criteria according to cytokeratin expression and analysis of clinicopathologic features. Hum Pathol. 1995 Sep;26(9):956–64.
Saini S. Imaging of the hepatobiliary tract. N Engl J Med. 1997;336(26):1889.
Choi SH, Han JK, Lee JM, et al. Differentiating malignant from benign common bile duct stricture with multiphasic helical CT. Radiology. 2005;236(1):178. Epub 2005 Jun 13.
Iavarone M, Piscaglia F, Vavassori S, et al. Contrast enhanced CT-scan to diagnose intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma in patients with cirrhosis. J Hepatol. 2013;58(6):1188–93. Epub 2013 Feb 26.
Adachi T, Eguchi S, Beppu T, et al. Prognostic impact of preoperative lymph node enlargement in intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma: a multi-institutional study by the Kyushu Study Group of Liver Surgery. Ann Surg Oncol. 2015;22(7):2269–78. Epub 2015 Jan 13.
Tillich M, Mischinger HJ, Preisegger KH, Rabl H, Szolar DH. Multiphasic helical CT in diagnosis and staging of hilar cholangiocarcinoma. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1998;171(3):651.
Manfredi R, Barbaro B, Masselli G, Vecchioli A, Marano P. Magnetic resonance imaging of cholangiocarcinoma. Semin Liver Dis. 2004;24(2):155.
Pelsang RE, Johlin FC. A percutaneous biopsy technique for patients with suspected biliary or pancreatic cancer without a radiographic mass. Abdom Imaging. 1997;22(3):307.
Corvera CU, Blumgart LH, Akhurst T, et al. 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography influences management decisions in patients with biliary cancer. J Am Coll Surg. 2008;206(1):57. Epub 2007 Oct 1.
Weber SM, RP DM, Fong Y, Blumgart LH, Jarnagin WR. Staging laparoscopy in patients with extrahepatic biliary carcinoma. Analysis of 100 patients. Ann Surg. 2002;235(3):392.
Su CH, Tsay SH, Wu CC, et al. Factors influencing postoperative morbidity, mortality, and survival after resection for hilar cholangiocarcinoma. Ann Surg. 1996;223(4):384.
Khan SA, et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of cholangiocarcinoma: an update. Gut. 2012;61:1657–69.
Liberato MJ, Canena JM. Endoscopic stenting for hilar cholangiocarcinoma: efficacy of unilateral and bilateral placement of plastic and metal stents in a retrospective review of 480 patients. BMC Gastroenterol. 2012;12:103.
Tsao JI, Nimura Y, Kamiya J, et al. Management of hilar cholangiocarcinoma: comparison of an American and a Japanese experience. Ann Surg. 2000;232(2):166.
Edge SB, Byrd DR, Compton CC, et al., editors. American Joint Committee on Cancer staging manual. 7th ed. New York: Springer; 2010. p. 219.
Panjala C, Nguyen JH, Al-Hajjaj AN, et al. Impact of neoadjuvant chemoradiation on the tumor burden before liver transplantation for unresectable cholangiocarcinoma. Liver Transpl. 2012;18(5):594.
Meyer CG, Penn I, James L. Liver transplantation for cholangiocarcinoma: results in 207 patients. Transplantation. 2000;69:1633–7.
Croome KP, Rosen CB, Heimbach JK, Nagorney DM. Is liver transplantation appropriate for patients with potentially resectable De Novo hilar cholangiocarcinoma? J Am Coll Surg. 2015;221(1):130–9. Epub 2015 Mar 11.
Rea DJ, Heimback JK, Rosen CB, et al. Ann Surg. 2005;242(3):451–8.
Eckel F, Brunner T, Jelic S, ESMO Guidelines Working Group. Biliary cancer: ESMO clinical practice guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Ann Oncol. 2011;22(Suppl 6):vi40–4.
Neoptolemos JP, Moore MJ, Cox TF, et al. European Study Group for Pancreatic Cancer. Effect of adjuvant chemotherapy with fluorouracil plus folinic acid or gemcitabine vs observation on survival in patients with resected periampullary adenocarcinoma: the ESPAC-3 periampullary cancer randomized trial. JAMA. 2012;308(2):147.
Primrose JN, Fox R, Palmer DH, et al. Adjuvant capecitabine for biliary tract cancer: the BILCAP randomized study (abstract). J Clin Oncol. 2017; 35 (suppl; abstr 4006).
Valle J, Wasan H, Palmer DH, et al. Cisplatin plus gemcitabine versus gemcitabine for biliary tract cancer. N Engl J Med. 2010;362(14):1273.
André T, Tournigand C, Rosmorduc O, et al. Gemcitabine combined with oxaliplatin (GEMOX) in advanced biliary tract adenocarcinoma: a GERCOR study. Ann Oncol. 2004;15(9):1339.
Knox JJ, Hedley D, Oza A, et al. Combining gemcitabine and capecitabine in patients with advanced biliary cancer: a phase II trial. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23(10):2332.
Novarino AM, Satolli MA, Chiappino I, et al. FOLFOX-4 regimen or single-agent gemcitabine as first-line chemotherapy in advanced biliary tract cancer. Am J Clin Oncol. 2013;36(5):466–71.
Nehls O, Oettle H, Hartmann JT, et al. Capecitabine plus oxaliplatin as first-line treatment in patients with advanced biliary system adenocarcinoma: a prospective multicentre phase II trial. Br J Cancer. 2008;98(2):309. Epub 2008 Jan 8.
Zhu AX, Meyerhardt JA, Blaszkowsky LS, et al. Efficacy and safety of gemcitabine, oxaliplatin, and bevacizumab in advanced biliary-tract cancers and correlation of changes in 18-fluorodeoxyglucose PET with clinical outcome: a phase 2 study. Lancet Oncol. 2010;11(1):48–54. Epub 2009 Nov 20.
Guion-Dusserre JF, Lorgis V, Vincent J, Bengrine L, Ghiringhelli F. FOLFIRI plus bevacizumab as a second-line therapy for metastatic intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. World J Gastroenterol. 2015;21(7):2096–101.
Philip PA, Mahoney MR, Allmer C, et al. Phase II study of erlotinib in patients with advanced biliary cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2006;24(19):3069.
Lubner SJ, Mahoney MR, Kolesar JL, et al. Report of a multicenter phase II trial testing a combination of biweekly bevacizumab and daily erlotinib in patients with unresectable biliary cancer: a phase II Consortium study. J Clin Oncol. 2010;28(21):3491. Epub 2010 Jun 7.
McMasters KM, Tuttle TM, Leach SD, et al. Neoadjuvant chemoradiation for extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. Am J Surg. 1997;174(6):605.
Nelson JW, Ghafoori AP, Willett CG, et al. Concurrent chemoradiotherapy in resected extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2009;73(1):148. Epub 2008 Sep 19.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Quinn, L.M., Bird, N., Jones, R., Vass, D., Malik, H. (2019). Cholangiocarcinoma: From Mechanisms to Management. In: Cross, T., Palmer, D. (eds) Liver Cancers. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92216-4_16
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92216-4_16
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-92215-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-92216-4
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)