Abstract
This chapter focuses on smallholder farmers in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, and Vietnam (CLMV), examining the relationship between their access to and uses of the environment, changing regimes at regional and national levels, and environmental problems. It argues that environmental and food security problems are also always governance problems and that they cannot be solved unless their political-economic dimensions are addressed. Although the vast majority of the food supply in Southeast Asia comes from smallholders, many face not only accelerating climate change but also poverty, large-scale land-grabbing, and limits to markets, technology, credit, and water. Women smallholders especially face legal and social hurdles, including access to land, credit, and education. This chapter offers case studies of how the ASEAN Economic Community, which aims to form a single market to better integrate in the global economy, could actually worsen the situation for smallholders in CLMV. Noting that smallholders’ level of resilience is significantly affected by political economy variables, such as degree of access to power, the effects of public policies, and lack of state support, it then offers recommendations of what ASEAN, national governments, and civil society could do to help smallholders. Suggestions include harmonizing regulatory frameworks; reducing non-tariff barriers; ensuring access to, management of, and ownership of land; reviving the agrarian economy; implementing pro-women policies; and helping smallholders to better access markets and receive fairer prices. Moreover, future studies of agricultural and environmental problems should account for how power geometries affect the creation of these problems.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
- 2.
- 3.
Thailand’s Gini coefficient is 0.51, the highest in Southeast Asia. Further, the poor are overrepresented in the agriculture sector. Poor families are heavily concentrated in this sector: almost half of the poor work in agriculture. About 90% of the poor reside in rural areas. See Bird et al. (2011).
- 4.
For example, FAO hosted a workshop in Bangkok on the guidelines in August 2013. See FAO (2013b).
References
ADHOC. (2013). A turning point? Land, housing and natural resources rights in Cambodia in 2012. Phnom Penh: ADHOC. http://www.adhoc-cambodia.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/ADHOC-A-Turning-Point-Land-Housing-and-Natural-Resources-Rights-in-2012.pdf
Adler, D., Ironside, J., & Ratanak, M. (2009). Mapping and tenure sin Cambodia’s indigenous communities. Phnom Penh: Heinrich Böll Stiftung. http://www.academia.edu/download/31038135/Mapping_and_Tenure_Security_in_Cambodias_Indigenous_Communities_final.pdf
Amanor, K. (2017). The global land grab: Beyond the hype. The Journal of Peasant Studies, 44(2), 506–509. https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2017.1287670.
Anthony, M. C., Teng, P. S., & Chng, B. (2013). ASEAN economic community (AEC) 2015: Opportunities and challenges for food security (NTS Policy Brief No. PO13-04). RSIS Centre for Non-Traditional Security Studies.
Arunmas, P. & Khachornwutthinan, P. (2012). Rice farmers’ debts surge. Bangkok Post, August 17, 2012. http://www.bangkokpost.com/print/307965/
ASEAN Secretariat. (2010). A humanitarian call: The ASEAN response to cyclone Nargis. Jakarta: ASEAN Secretariat. http://www.aseansec.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/1.pdf
ASEAN Secretariat. (2016). ASEAN economic community chartbook 2016. Jakarta: ASEAN Secretariat. http://www.aseanstats.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/AEC-Chartbook-2016-1.pdf
Asian Development Bank. (2013, April). Asian development outlook (ADO) 2013: Asia’s energy challenge. https://www.adb.org/publications/asian-development-outlook-2013-asias-energy-challenge
Asian Development Bank. (2014). Cambodia country poverty analysis 2014. Manila. https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/151706/cambodia-country-poverty-analysis-2014.pdf
Asian Farmers’ Association for Sustainable Rural Development. (2007, October 26). Towards a fair trade in an integrating ASEAN: Perspectives of small men and women farmers in AFA – Asian farmers association for sustainable rural development. http://asianfarmers.org/?p=335
Bano, S., Takahashi, Y., & Scrimgeour, F. (2013). ASEAN-New Zealand trade relations and trade potential: Evidence and analysis. Journal of Economic Integration, 28(1), 144–182. https://doi.org/10.2307/41825679.
Bird, K., Hattel, K., Sasaki, E., Attapich, L. (2011, November). Poverty, income inequality, and microfinance in Thailand. Manila: Asian Development Bank. http://hdl.handle.net/11540/1311
Blaikie, P., & Brookfield, H. (1987). Land degradation and society. London: Methuen http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/19876703924.html.
Boot, W. (2013). CP workers’ woes highlight concerns about big agriculture in Burma. The Irrawaddy, June 27, 2013. https://www.irrawaddy.com/business/cp-workers-woes-highlight-concerns-about-big-agriculture-in-burma.html
Cambodia Development Resource Institute. (2011). Improving the governance of water resources in Cambodia: A stakeholder analysis.
Chantanusornsiri, W. (2017, July 20). New property tax bill offers chance to narrow income gap. Bangkok Post. https://www.pressreader.com/thailand/bangkok-post/20170720/281797104049654
Chun, N. (2014). Improving rice production and commercialization in Cambodia: Findings from the farm investment climate assessment. Manila: Asian Development Bank.
Communist Review. (2011, January). Impacts of the present land policy and management on rural development. http://english.tapchicongsan.org.vn/Home/Theory-and-Reality/2011/199/Impacts-of-the-present-land-policy-and-management-on-rural-development.aspx
Corona, S. (2013). The case for a Southeast Asian agriculture risk pool. Geneva Association. http://www.asiacapitalre.com/Documents/ACR-CH/media_centre/our_views/2013/pdf/AIR%20-%20The%20case%20for%20a%20Southeast%20Asian%20agriculture%20risk%20pool.pdf
Council for Agriculture and Rural Development, World Food Programme, and World Bank. (2009). Safety nets in Cambodia: Concept note and inventory. http://www.foodsecurity.gov.kh/sites/default/files/docs/WB-Cambodia-Social-Safety-Net-Concept-Eng.pdf
Daite, R. B. (2015). The ASEAN economic community 2015 and regional trade: Some prospects for ASEAN agriculture. Asian Journal of Agriculture and Development, 12(2), 17–32.
Delforge, I. (2004). Thailand: From the kitchen of the world to food sovereignty. Focus on the Global South. https://focusweb.org/node/506
Desker, B., Caballero-Anthony, M., & Teng, P. (2013). Thought/issues paper on ASEAN food security: Towards a more comprehensive framework (ERIA Discussion Paper Series ERIA-DP-2013-20). Singapore: Rajaratnam School of International Studies. http://www.eria.org/ERIA-DP-2013-20.pdf
Diakonia. (2012, April 27). Cambodia: Activist Chut Wutty killed. http://www.diakonia.se/en/Info/News–Publications/News-archive-2012/Cambodia-Activist-Chut-Wutty-killed/
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). (2008). Overview of contract farming in Thailand: Lessons learned. http://www.fao.org/uploads/media/ADBI%20contract%20farming%20thailand.pdf
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). (2012). Smallholders and family farmers. http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/nr/sustainability_pathways/docs/Factsheet_SMALLHOLDERS.pdf
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). (2013a). Report of workshop on private corporate sector investment in agriculture in Southeast Asia. http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/tcsp/docs/1_Final%20Report%20Bandung.pdf
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). (2013b). Technical workshop for the Asia region raising awareness of the voluntary guidelines on the responsible governance of tenure of land, fisheries and forests in the context of national food security. http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/rap/files/meetings/2013/131209_report-awareness.pdf
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). (2015). Myanmar floods: Huge impact on agricultural livelihoods, more international support urgently needed: FAO in emergencies. http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/emergencies/docs/Final%20fact%20sheet%201%20-%20web%20version.pdf
Focus on the Global South. (2013). Moving forward: Study on the impacts of the implementation of order 01BB in selected communities in rural Cambodia. https://focusweb.org/system/files/Student%20Volunteers%20Report_%20ENG.pdf
Germanwatch. (2016). Global climate risk index 2017. https://germanwatch.org/en/12978
Global Witness. (2013). Rubber Barons. https://www.globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/land-deals/rubberbarons/
Haggblade, S., & Boughton, D. (2013). A strategic agricultural sector and food security diagnostic for Myanmar (IDWP 131). Prepared for USAID/Burma. http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/161372
Hodal, K. (2013, July 9). Cambodia’s sugar rush leaves farmers feeling bitter at ‘Land Grab.’ The Guardian, sec. World News. http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/09/cambodia-sugar-land-grab-claims
Human Rights Defenders. (2012, December 12). Re: Thailand—Killing of human rights defenders and members of Southern Peasants Federation of Thailand Ms. Montha Chukaew and Ms. Pranee Boonrat. International Federation for Human Rights. http://www.fidh.org/en/asia/thailand/Re-Thailand-Killing-of-human-12664
Human Rights Watch. (2014). Country summary: Cambodia. http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/related_material/cambodia_7.pdf
Huyer, S. (2016). Closing the gender gap in agriculture. Gender, Technology and Development, 20(2), 105–116. https://doi.org/10.1177/0971852416643872.
Isvilanonda, S. (2012). Success factors for smallholder rice production in Thailand. In Agri Benchmark Conference. Pretoria, South Africa.
Juego, B. (2014). The ASEAN economic community project: Accumulating capital, dispossessing the commons. Heinrich Böll Stiftung. http://vbn.aau.dk/ws/files/207086805/Bonn_Juego_2014_The_ASEAN_Economic_Community_Project_Development_Debates_in_Asia_pp._12_19.pdf
Kimsay, H. (2013, May 20). Agriculture needs more loans, irrigation systems, experts say. Phnom Penh Post. http://www.phnompenhpost.com/business/agriculture-needs-more-loans-irrigation-systems-experts-say
Kunmaka, M. (2016, October 28). Rice crop damaged by floods. Khmer Times. http://www.khmertimeskh.com/news/31368/rice-crop-damaged-by-floods/
Kusakabe, K. (2015). Gender analysis of economic land concessions in Cambodia and in Northern Laos: Case of rubber plantations (LDPI Conference Paper No. Vol. 43).
Leonard, R., & Narintarakul Na Ayutthaya, K. (2002). Taking land from the poor, giving land to the rich. Watershed, 8(2), 14–25.
Leturque, H., & Wiggins, S. (2010). Thailand’s progress in agriculture: Transition and sustained productivity growth. London: Overseas Development Institute.
Lubanski, J. (2012). Land is life: A policy advocacy case study of the Northern Thailand land reform movement. MA Thesis, SIT Graduate Institute. http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/capstones/2565
Macan-Markar, M. (2016, March 19). Debt fills Thailand’s rice bowl. Nikkei Asian Review. https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics-Economy/Economy/Debt-fills-Thailand-s-rice-bowl
Minh, L. N., & Maerten, B. 2012. Growing a better future in Viet Nam: Expanding rights, voices and choices for small-scale farmers. Policy and Practice. Hanoi: Oxfam. http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/publications/growing-a-better-future-in-viet-nam-expanding-rights-voices-and-choices-for-sma-250351
Naren, K. (2013, December 31). After protest, government speeds up land titles for Kratie Families. Cambodia Daily. https://www.cambodiadaily.com/archives/after-protest-government-speeds-up-land-titles-for-kratie-families-49768/
Nation. (2014, March 5). Eleven Thais make Forbes’ billionaires list. http://www.nationmultimedia.com/business/Eleven-Thais-make-Forbes-billionaires-list-30228374.html
National Institute of Statistics. (2015). Census of agriculture in Cambodia 2013. Phnom Penh. http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/ess/ess_test_folder/World_Census_Agriculture/Country_info_2010/Reports/Reports_5/KHM_ENG_REP_2013.pdf
NGO Forum on Cambodia. (2011). Learning from irrigation projects in Cambodia: Benefits and challenges. Phnom Penh.
Nguyen, M., & Tostevin, M. (2017, November 5). Death toll from typhoon in Vietnam rises to 27. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-asia-storm-vietnam/floods-swamp-vietnam-as-typhoon-death-toll-reaches-27-idUSKBN1D5042
Noi, G. S. (2010, February 17). ASEAN Jittery about trade pact with China. Strait Times.
O’Toole, J. (2011, September 5). Bittersweet harvest. Bangkok Post. http://www.bangkokpost.com/business/economics/255018/bittersweet-harvest
Oldenburg, C., & Neef, A. (2014). Reversing land grabs or aggravating tenure insecurity? Competing perspectives on economic land concessions and land titling in Cambodia. Law and Development Review, 7(1), 49–77. https://doi.org/10.1515/ldr-2014-0014.
Overseas Development Institute. (2013). Agriculture: Business and development exchange summary. http://www.odi.org.uk/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/projects-documents/269.pdf
Oxford Business Group. (2016, December 4). Viet Nam’s agricultural sector arrives at a crossroads. VietNamNet. http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/business/167997/viet-nam-s-agricultural-sector-arrives-at-a-crossroads.html
Pincus, J. R. (2012). Vietnam’s reforms: The road to market leninism. The Legatum Institute. https://lif.blob.core.windows.net/lif/docs/default-source/country-growth-reports/prosperity-in-depth-vietnam-39-s-reforms–the-road-to-market-leninism.pdf?sfvrsn=0
Purugganan, J. (2012, November 26). Questioning ASEAN’s path to development: Grassroots leaders raise concerns on trade and investment policies, projects. Focus on the Global South. https://focusweb.org/content/questioning-asean%E2%80%99s-path-development-grassroots-leaders-raise-concerns-trade-and-investment
Rao, N. (2011). Women’s access to land: An Asian perspective (Expert paper 3). UN Women. http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/csw/csw56/egm/Rao-EP-3-EGM-RW-30Sep-2011.pdf
Sarnsamak, P. (2014. February 19). Rice-scheme woes not major factor in suicides, Agency Says. The Nation. http://www.nationmultimedia.com/national/Rice-scheme-woes-not-major-factor-in-suicides-agen-30227201.html
Sattabururh, A., & Pongpao, S. (2012, June 12). Flood compo protesters threaten roadblock. Bangkok Post. http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/politics/297627/flood-compo-protesters-threaten-roadblock
Shenggen, F., Joanna, B., Michiel, K., & Alex, H. (2013). From subsistence to profit: Transforming smallholder farms. Washington, DC: Intl Food Policy Res Inst.
Sokheng, V., & Turton, S. (2015, October 22). Budget figures released. Phnom Penh Post. http://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/budget-figures-released
Sokhorng, C. (2016, August 25). Battambang rice-farming families fear floods. Phnom Penh Post. http://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/battambang-rice-farming-families-fear-floods
Sondergaard, L. M., Luo, X., Jithitikulchai, T., Poggi, C., Lathapipat, D., Kuriakose, S., Martin, S., Eduardo, M., Reungsri, T., & Mohib, S. A. (2016). Thailand getting back on track. Bangkok: World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25740/Thailand-SCD-final-public-11162016.pdf?sequence=1
STAR Kampuchea. (2013). Shadow report on women’s land rights in Cambodia. Phnom Penh.
Tinh, L. D., & Long, H. H. (2013). Vietnam in ASEAN and ASEAN in Vietnam (Asia-Pacific Bulletin 242). Washington, DC: East-West Center. http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/30982
Tuoitre News. (2012, February). HAGL starts work on $40 Mln Airport in Laos.
Tuoitre News. (2013, November 2). Challenges await Vietnamese firms after TPP. http://tuoitrenews.vn/news/business/20131102/challenges-await-vietnamese-firms-after-tpp/29176.html
UN Capital Development Fund. (2010). Local development outlook: Cambodia. New York. http://trove.nla.gov.au/version/170674793
USAID Burma. (2013). Background Paper No.4: Food and nutrition security in Burma. http://www.usaidbest.org/docs/burmaBackground.pdf
Vdassani. (2013, June 14). Trade opportunities between ASEAN and SAARC. http://southasia.ifpri.info/2013/06/14/trade-opportunities-between-asean-and-saarc/
VietnamNet Bridge. (2013, March 10). How many billionaires are there in Vietnam?. http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/business/68185/how-many-billionaires-are-there-in-vietnam-.html
Vietnamnews.Vn. (2017, June 2017). Climate change forecast to shrink rice yield. http://vietnamnews.vn/environment/378426/climate-change-forecast-to-shrink-rice-yield.html
Walker, A. (2007, October 17). Contract farming. New Mandala (blog). http://www.newmandala.org/contract-farming/
Wells-Dang, A. (2013). Promoting land rights in Vietnam: A multi-sector advocacy coalition approach. Washington DC.
Win, S. P., & Kean, T. (2013, November 3). Revised farmer protection law quietly comes into effect. The Myanmar Times. https://www.mmtimes.com/in-depth/8688-revised-farmer-protection-law-quietly-comes-into-effect.html
Woods, K. (2013). The politics of the emerging agro-industrial complex in Asia’s ‘Final Frontier’: The war on food sovereignty in Burma. https://www.tni.org/en/briefing/politics-emerging-agro-industrial-complex-asias-final-frontier
World Bank. (2011, February 25). Cambodia: Villagers enjoy cheaper, reliable electricity. http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2011/02/25/cambodia-villagers-enjoy-cheaper-reliable-electricity
Zola, A. (2009). Scoping study on cross-border agribusiness in Lao PDR: Focus on Champasak Province. World Bank. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/782861468263761056/Trade-development-facility-scoping-study-on-cross-border-agribusiness-in-Lao-PDR-focus-on-Champasak-province
Zorya, S. (2016, May 27). Unleashing Myanmar’s agricultural potential. http://blogs.worldbank.org/eastasiapacific/unleashing-myanmar-agricultural-potential
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Marks, D. (2019). Common Challenges of Smallholders in ASEAN: Lacking Access to Land, Water, Market, and State. In: Stewart, M., Coclanis, P. (eds) Water and Power. Advances in Global Change Research, vol 64. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90400-9_15
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90400-9_15
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-90399-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-90400-9
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)