Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Functional Mobility and Gait in Children and Youth with Cerebral Palsy

  • Reference work entry
  • First Online:
Cerebral Palsy

  • 225 Accesses

Abstract

Children with cerebral palsy (CP) often undergo interventions designed to manage both the negative and positive features of the disorder such as Botulinum Toxin A injections (BoNT-A) or oral medications to reduce spasticity or strength training to improve muscle weakness. Interventions such as physiotherapy may improve the level of functioning, or orthopedic surgery may reduce the impact of musculoskeletal impairments or modify the natural history of cerebral palsy and improve gross motor and gait function (Graham et al., Nat Rev Dis Primers 2:15082, 2016).

With approximately two-thirds of children ambulant (Graham et al., Nat Rev Dis Primers 2:15082, 2016; Novak et al., Dev Med Child Neurol 55:885–910, 2013), the focus of this chapter will be the effects of the brain lesion on mobility and gait with particular reference to the impact on activity and participation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Ailon T, Beauchamp R, Miller S, Mortenson P, Kerr JM, Hengel AR, Steinbok P (2015) Long-term outcome after selective dorsal rhizotomy in children with spastic cerebral palsy. Childs Nerv Syst 31(3):415–423

    Google Scholar 

  • Alotaibi M, Long T, Kennedy E, Bavishi S (2014) The efficacy of GMFM-88 and GMFM-66 to detect changes in gross motor function in children with cerebral palsy (CP): a literature review. Disabil Rehabil 36(8):617–627

    Google Scholar 

  • Aquilina K, Graham D, Wimalasundera N (2015) Selective dorsal rhizotomy: an old treatment re-emerging. Arch Dis Child 100(8):798–802

    Google Scholar 

  • Avery LM, Russell DJ, Raina PS, Walter SD, Rosenbaum PL (2003) Rasch analysis of the Gross Motor Function Measure: validating the assumptions of the Rasch model to create an interval-level measure. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 84(5):697–705

    Google Scholar 

  • Bania T (2014) Measuring physical activity in young people with cerebral palsy: validity and reliability of the ActivPALTM monitor. Physiother Res Int 19(3):186–192

    Google Scholar 

  • Bennell K, Dobson F, Hinman R (2011) Measures of physical performance assessments: Self-Paced Walk Test, Stair Climb Test, Six-Minute Walk Test, Chair Stand Test, Timed Up & Go, Sock Test, Lift and Carry Test, and Car Task. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 63(Suppl 11):S350–S370

    Google Scholar 

  • Berendsen BA, Hendriks MR, Meijer K, Plasqui G, Schaper NC, Savelberg HH (2014) Which activity monitor to use? Validity, reproducibility and user friendliness of three activity monitors. BMC Public Health 14:749

    Google Scholar 

  • Bjornson KF, Graubert CS, McLaughlin J, Kerfeld CI, Clark EM (1998) Test retest reliability of the gross motor function measure in children with cerebral palsy. Phys Occup Ther Pediatr 18:51–61

    Google Scholar 

  • Blundell SW, Shepherd RB, Dean CM, Adams RD, Cahill BM (2003) Functional strength training in cerebral palsy: a pilot study of a group circuit training class for children aged 4-8 years. Clin Rehabil 17(1):48–57

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boyce W, Gowland C, Russell D, et al. (1993) Consensus methodology in the development and content validation of a gross motor performance measure. Physiother Can 45(2):94–100

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyce W, Gowland C, Rosenbaum PL, et al. (1995) The gross motor performance measure: validity and responsiveness of a measure of quality of movement. Phys Ther 75(7):603–613

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bruininks VL, Bruininks RH (1977) Moto proficiency of learning disabled and nondisabled students. Percept Mot Skills 44(3)Pt2:1131–1137

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brunton LK, Bartlett DJ (2011) Validity and reliability of two abbreviated versions of the Gross Motor Function Measure. Phys Ther 91(4):577–588

    Google Scholar 

  • Buckon CE, Thomas SS, Harris GE, Piatt JH Jr, Aiona MD, Sussman MD (2002) Objective measurement of muscle strength in children with spastic diplegia after selective dorsal rhizotomy. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 83(4):454–460

    Google Scholar 

  • Carey H, Martin K, Combs-Miller S, Heathcock JC (2016) Reliability and responsiveness of the timed up and go test in children with cerebral palsy. Pediatr Phys Ther 28(4):401–408

    Google Scholar 

  • Carswell A, McColl MA, Baptiste S, Law M, Polatajko H, Pollock N (2004) The Canadian occupational performance measure: a research and clinical literature review. Can J Occup Ther 71(4):210–222

    Google Scholar 

  • Carvalho I, Pinto SM, Chagas DDV, Praxedes Dos Santos JL, de Sousa Oliveira T, Batista LA (2017) Robotic gait training for individuals with cerebral palsy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 98(11):2332–2344

    Google Scholar 

  • Clanchy KM, Tweedy SM, Boyd R (2011) Measurement of habitual physical activity performance in adolescents with cerebral palsy: a systematic review. Dev Med Child Neurol 53:499–505

    Google Scholar 

  • Connelly A, Flett P, Graham HK, Oates J (2009) Hip surveillance in Tasmanian children with cerebral palsy. J Pediatr Child Health 45:437–443

    Google Scholar 

  • Coolbaugh CL, Hawkins DA (2014) Standardizing accelerometer-based activity monitor calibration and output reporting. J Appl Biomech 30(4):594–597

    Google Scholar 

  • Dallmeijer AJ, Baker R, Dodd KJ, Taylor NF (2011) Association between isometric muscle strength and gait joint kinetics in adolescents and young adults with cerebral palsy. Gait Posture 33(3):326–332

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dallmeijer AJ, Rameckers EA, Houdijk H, de Groot S, Scholtes VA, Becher JG (2017) Isometric muscle strength and mobility capacity in children with cerebral palsy. Disabil Rehabil 39(2):135–142

    Google Scholar 

  • Dalroy LH, Liang MH, Fossell AH, et al (1998) The POSNA pediatric musculoskeletal functional health questionnaire: report on reliability, validity and sensitivity to change. Pediatric outcomes instrument development group. Pediatric orthopaedic society of north America. J Pediatr Orthop 18(5):561–571

    Google Scholar 

  • Damiano DL (2006) Activity, activity, activity: rethinking our physical therapy approach to cerebral palsy. Physical Ther 86(11):1534–1540

    Google Scholar 

  • Damiano DL, Abel MF (1996) Relation of gait analysis to gross motor function in cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 38(5):389–396

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Daunter AK, Kratz AL, Hurvitz EA (2017) Long-term impact of childhood selective dorsal rhizotomy on pain, fatigue, and function: a case-control study. Dev Med Child Neurol 59(10):1089–1095

    Google Scholar 

  • Davids JR, Ounpuu S, DeLuca PA, Davis RB (2003) Optimization of walking ability of children with cerebral palsy. J Bone Joint Surg 85-A:2224–2234

    Google Scholar 

  • Dodd KJ, Taylor NF, Damiano DL (2002) A systematic review of the effectiveness of strength-training programs for people with cerebral palsy. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 83(8):1157–1164

    Google Scholar 

  • Dreher T, Buccoliero T, Wolf SI, Heitzmann D, Gantz S, Braatz F, Wenz W (2012a) Long-term results after gastrocnemius-soleus intramuscular aponeurotic recession as a part of multilevel surgery in spastic diplegic cerebral palsy. J Bone Joint Surg Am 94(7):627–637

    Google Scholar 

  • Dreher T, Wolf SI, Heitzmann D, Swartman B, Schuster W, Gantz S, Hagmann S, Doderlein L, Braatz F (2012b) Long-term outcome of femoral derotation osteotomy in children with spastic diplegia. Gait Posture 36(3):467–470

    Google Scholar 

  • Dreher T, Vegvari D, Wolf SL, Klotz M, Muller S, Metaxiotis D, Wenz W, Doderlein L, Braatz F (2013) Long-term effects after conversion of biarticular to monoarticular muscles compared with musculotendinous lengthening in children with spastic diplegia. Gait Posture 37(3):430–435

    Google Scholar 

  • Dreher T, Thomason P, Svehlik M, Doderlein L, Wolf SI, Putz C, Uehlein O, Chia K, Steinwender G, Sangeux M, Graham HK (2018) Long-term development of gait after multilevel surgery in children with cerebral palsy: a multicentre cohort study. Dev Med Child Neurol 60(1):88–93

    Google Scholar 

  • Drouin LM, Malouin F, Richards CL, Marcoux S (1996) Correlation between the gross motor function measure scores and gait spatiotemporal measures in children with neurological impairments. Dev Med Child Neurol 38(11):1007–1019

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dumas HM, Fragala-Pinkham MA, Haley SM, Ni P, Coster W, Kramer JM, Kao YC, Moed R, Ludlow LH (2012) Computer adaptive test performance in children with and without disabilities: prospective field study of the PEDI-CAT. Disabil Rehabil 34(5):393–401

    Google Scholar 

  • Ekelund U, Sjostrom M, Yngve A, Poortvliet E, Nilsson A, Froberg K, Wedderkopp N, Westerterp K (2001) Physical activity assessed by activity monitor and doubly labeled water in children. Med Sci Exercise 33(2):275–281

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eldridge B, McCoy A, Galea M, Wolfe R, Graham HK (2003) Variability in the measurement of uptime in children: a preliminary study. Clin Rehabil 17(5):499–503

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eliasson A-C, Krumlinde-Sundholm L, Rosblad B et al (2006) The Manual Ability Classification System (MACS) for children with cerebral palsy: scale development and evidence of validity and reliability. Dev Med Child Neurol 48:549–554

    Google Scholar 

  • Faigenbaum AD, Milliken LA, Westcott WL (2003) Maximal strength testing in healthy children. J Strength Cond Res 17(1):162–166

    Google Scholar 

  • Finn KJ, Specker B (2000) Comparison of Actiwatch activity monitor and Children’s Activity Rating Scale in children. Med Sci Sport Exercise 32(10):1794–1797

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Franki I, Desloovere K, De Cat J, Feys H, Molenaers G, Calders P, Vanderstraeten G, Himpens E, Van Broeck C (2012) The evidence-base for basic physical therapy techniques targeting lower limb function in children with cerebral palsy: a systematic review using the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health as a conceptual framework. J Rehabil Med 44(5):385–395

    Google Scholar 

  • Gillett JG, Boyd RN, Carty CP, Barber LA (2016) The impact of strength training on skeletal muscle morphology and architecture in children and adolescents with spastic cerebral palsy: a systematic review. Res Dev Disabil 56:183–196

    Google Scholar 

  • Glazebrook CM, Wright FV (2014) Measuring advanced motor skills in children with cerebral palsy: further development of the challenge module. Pediatr Phys Ther 26(2):201–213

    Google Scholar 

  • Goh HT, Thompson M, Huang WB, Schafer S (2006) Relationships among measures of knee musculoskeletal impairments, gross motor function, and walking efficiency in children with cerebral palsy. Pediatr Phys Ther 18(4):253–261

    Google Scholar 

  • Gorton GE 3rd, Abel MF, Oeffinger DJ, Bagley A, Rogers SP, Damiano D, Romness M, Tylkowski C (2009) A prospective cohort study of the effects of lower extremity orthopaedic surgery on outcome measures in ambulatory children with cerebral palsy. J Pediatr Orthop 29(8):903–909

    Google Scholar 

  • Gough M, Eve LC, Robinson RO, Shortland AP (2004) Short-term outcome of multilevel surgical intervention in spastic diplegic cerebral palsy compared with the natural history. Dev Med Child Neurol 46(2):91–97

    Google Scholar 

  • Gowland C, Boyce W, Wright V, et al. (1995) Reliability of the gross motor performance measure. Phys Ther 75(7):597–602

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Graham HK, Harvey A, Rodda J, Nattrass GR, Pirpiris M (2004) The functional mobility scale (FMS). J Pediatr Orthop 24:514–520

    Google Scholar 

  • Graham HK, Thomason P, Novacheck T (2013) Cerebral palsy. In: Weinstein SL, Flynn JM (eds) Lovell and Winter’s pediatric orthopaedics, 7th edn. Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia

    Google Scholar 

  • Graham HK, Rosenbaum P, Paneth N, Dan B, Lin JP, Damiano DL, Becher JG, Gaebler-Spira D, Colver A, Reddihough DS, Crompton KE, Lieber RL (2016) Cerebral palsy. Nat Rev Dis Primers 2:15082

    Google Scholar 

  • Grunt S, Becher JG, Vermeulen RJ (2011) Long-term outcome and adverse effects of selective dorsal rhizotomy in children with cerebral palsy: a systematic review. Dev Med Child Neurol 53:490–498

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagglund G, Lauge-Pedersen H, Wagner P (2007) Characteristics of children with hip displacement in cerebral palsy. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 8:101

    Google Scholar 

  • Haley SM (1997) The pediatric evaluation of disability inventory. J Rehab Outcome Meas 1:61–69

    Google Scholar 

  • Haley SM, Coster W, Ludlow LH (1992) Pediatric evaluation of disability inventory, 1st edn. New England Medical Centre Hospitals, Boston

    Google Scholar 

  • Haley S, Ludlow LH, Coster WJ (1993) Pediatric evaluation of disability inventory: clinical interpretation of summary scores using Rasch rating scale methodology. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am 4(3):529–540

    Google Scholar 

  • Haley SM, Coster WI, Kao YC, Dumas HM, Fragala-Pinkham MA, Kramer JM, Ludlow LH, Moed R (2010a) Lessons from use of the Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory: where do we go from here? Pediatr Phys Ther 22(1):69–75

    Google Scholar 

  • Haley SM, Chafetz RS, Tian F, Montpetit K, Watson K, Gorton G, Mulcahey MJ (2010b) Validity and reliability of physical functioning computer-adaptive tests for children with cerebral palsy. J Pediatr Orthop 30(1):71–75

    Google Scholar 

  • Haley SM, Coster WJ, Dumas HM, Fragala-Pinkham MA, Kramer J, Ni P, Tian F, Kao YC, Moed R, Ludlow LH (2011) Accuracy and precision of the Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory computer-adaptive tests (PEDI-CAT). Dev Med Child Neurol 53(12):1100–1106

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanna SE, Rosenbaum PL, Bartlett DJ, Palisano RJ, Walter SD, Avery L, Russell DJ (2009) Stability and decline in gross motor function among children and youth with cerebral palsy aged 2 to 21 years. Dev Med Child Neurol 51:295–302

    Google Scholar 

  • Hassani S, Krzak JJ, Johnson B, Flanagan A, Gorton G 3rd, Bagley A, Ounpuu S, Romness M, Tylkowski C, Oeffinger D (2014) One-Minute Walk and modified Timed Up and Go tests in children with cerebral palsy: performance and minimum clinically important differences. Dev Med Child Neurol 56(5):482–489

    Google Scholar 

  • Hastings-Ison T, Blackburn C, Rawicki B, Fahey M, Simpson P, Baker R, Graham K (2016) Injection frequency of botulinum toxin A for spastic equinus: a randomized clinical trial. Dev Med Child Neurol 58(7):750–757

    Google Scholar 

  • Hickey A, John D, Sasaki JE, Mavilia M, Freedson P (2016) Validity of activity monitor step detection is related to movement patterns. J Phys Activity Health 13(2):145–153

    Google Scholar 

  • Hidecker MJ, Paneth N, Rosenbaum PL, Kent RD, Little J, Eulenberg JB, Chester K Jr, Johnson B, Michalsen L, Evatt M, Taylor K (2011) Developing and validating the Communication Function Classification System (CFCS) for individuals with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 53:704–710

    Google Scholar 

  • Itzkowitz A, Kaplan S, Doyle M, Weingarten G, Lieberstein M, Covino F, Vialu C (2016) Timed up and go: reference data for children who are school age. Pediatr Phys Ther 28(2):239–246

    Google Scholar 

  • Josenby AL, Wagner P, Jarnlo GB, Westbom L, Nordmark E (2012) Motor function after selective dorsal rhizotomy: a 10-year practice-based follow-up study. Dev Med Child Neurol 54(5):429–435

    Google Scholar 

  • Kendall HO, Kendall FP, Wadsworth GE (eds) (1971) Muscle testing and function, 2nd edn. Williams and Wilkins, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Khouri N, Desailly E (2017) Contribution of clinical gait analysis to single-event multi-level surgery in children with cerebral palsy. Orthop Traumatol Surg Res 103(1S):S105–S111

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • King G, Law M, King S, Hurley P, Hanna S, Kertov M, Rosenbaum P, Young N (2004) Children’s Assessment of Participation and Enjoyment (CAPE) and Preferences for Activities of Children (PAC). Harcourt Assessment, San Antonio

    Google Scholar 

  • King GA, Law M, King S, Hurley P, Hanna S, Kertoy M, Rosenbaum P (2007) Measuring children’s participation in recreation and leisure activities: construct validation of the CAPE and PAC. Child Care Health Dev 33(1):28–39

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • King WC, Li J, Leishear K, Mitchell JE, Belle SH (2011) Determining activity monitor wear time: an influential decision rule. J Phys Activity Health 8(4):566–580

    Google Scholar 

  • Kiresuk T, Sherman R (1968) Goal attainment scaling: a general method of evaluating comprehensive mental health programs. Community Ment Health 4:443–453

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Koman LA, Mooney JF, Smith B (1993) Management of cerebral palsy with botulinum-A toxin: preliminary investigation. J Pediatr Orthop 4:489–495

    Google Scholar 

  • Koman L, Mooney JF III, Smith B (1994) Management of spasticity in cerebral palsy with botulinum A toxin report of a preliminary, randomized, double-blind trail. J Pediatr Orthop 14(3):299–303

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kramer JF, MacPhail HE (1994) Relationships among measures of walking efficiency, gross motor ability and isokinetic strength in adolescents with cerebral palsy. Pediatr Phys Ther 6(1):3–8

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuo YL, Culhane KM, Thomason P, Tirosh O, Baker R (2009) Measuring distance walked and step count in children with cerebral palsy: an evaluation of two portable activity monitors. Gait Posture 29(2):304–310

    Google Scholar 

  • Lammers AE, Hislop AA, Flynn Y, Haworth SG (2008) The 6-minute walk test: normal values for children of 4-11 years of age. Arch Dis Childhood 93(6):464–468

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Law M, Polatajko H, Pollock N, McColl MA, Carswell A, Baptiste S (1994) Pilot testing of the Canadian occupational performance measure; clinical and measurement issues. Can J Occup Ther 61(4):191–197

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Love SC, Novak I, Kentish M, Desloovere K, Heinen F, Molenaers G, O'Flaherty S, Graham HK (2010) Cerebral Palsy Institute. Botulinum toxin assessment, intervention and after-care for lower limb spasticity in children with cerebral palsy: international consensus statement. Eur J Neurol 17(Suppl 2):9–37

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackey AH, Lobb GL, Walt SE, Stott NS (2003) Reliability and validity of the Observational Gait Scale in children with spastic diplegia. Dev Med Child Neurol 45(1):4–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackey AH, Stott NS, Walt SE (2008) Reliability and validity of an activity monitor (IDEEA) in the determination of temporal-spatial gait parameters in individuals with cerebral palsy. Gait Posture 28(4):634–639

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mackey AH, Hewart P, Walt SE, Stott NS (2009) The sensitivity and specificity of an activity monitor in detecting functional activities in young people with cerebral palsy. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 90(8):1396–1401

    Google Scholar 

  • Marois P, Marois M, Pouliot-Laforte A, Vanasse M, Lambert J, Ballaz L (2016) Gross motor function measure evolution ratio: use as a control for natural progression in cerebral palsy. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 97(5):807–814

    Google Scholar 

  • Mathevon L, Michel F, Decavel P, Fernandez B, Parratte B, Calmels P (2015) Muscle structure and stiffness assessment after botulinum toxin type A injection. A systematic review. Ann Phys Rehabil 58(6):343–350

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McAloon MT, Hutchins S, Twiste M, Jones R, Forchtner S (2014) Validation of the activPAL activity monitor in children with hemiplegic gait patterns resultant from cerebral palsy. Prosthe Orthot Int 38(5):393–399

    Google Scholar 

  • McCabe MA, Granger CV (1990) Content validity of a pediatric functional independence measure. Appl Nurs Res 3(3):120–122

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McColl MA, Paterson M, Davies D, Doubt L, Law M (2000) Validity and community utility of the Canadian occupational performance measure. Can J Occup Ther 67(1):22–30

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McDonald CM, Widman L, Abresch RT, Walsh SA, Walsh DD (2005) Utility of a step activity monitor for the measurement of daily ambulatory activity in children. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 86(4):793–801

    Google Scholar 

  • McFall J, Stewart C, Kidgell V, Postans N, Jarvis S, Freeman R, Roberts A (2015) Changes in gait which occur before and during the adolescent growth spurt in children treated by selective dorsal rhizotomy. Gait Posture 42(3):317–322

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McGinley J, Dobson F, Ganeshalingam R, Shore BJ, Rutz E, Graham HK (2012) Single- event multilevel surgery for children with cerebral palsy: a systematic review. Dev Med Child Neurol 54:117–128

    Google Scholar 

  • McLaughlin J, Bjornson K, Temkin N, Steinbok P, Wright V, Reiner A, Roberts T, Drake J, O’Donnell M, Rosenbaum P, Barber J, Ferrel A (2002) Selective dorsal rhizotomy: meta-analysis of three randomized controlled trials. Dev Med Child Neurol 44:17–25

    Google Scholar 

  • McMorran D, Robinson LW, Henderson G, Herman J, Robb JE, Gaston MS (2016) Using a goal attainment scale in the evaluation of outcomes in patients with diplegic cerebral palsy. Gait Posture 44:168–171

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moll I, Vles JSH, Soudant DLHM, Witlox AMA, Staal HM, Speth LAWM, Janssen-Potten YJM, Coenen M, Koudijs SM, Vermeulen RJ (2017) Functional electrical stimulation of the ankle dorsiflexors during walking in spastic cerebral palsy: a systematic review. Dev Med Child Neurol 59(12):1230–1236

    Google Scholar 

  • Msall ME, DiGaudio K, Rogers BT, LaForest S, Catanzaro NL, Campbell J, Wilczenski F, Duffy LC (1994) The Functional Independence Measure for Children (WeeFIM). Conceptual basis and pilot use in children with developmental disabilities. Clin Pediatr 33(7):421–430

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Munger ME, Aldahondo N, Krach LE, Novacheck TF, Schwartz MH (2017) Long-term outcomes after selective dorsal rhizotomy: a retrospective matched cohort study. Dev Med Child Neurol 59(11):1196–1203

    Google Scholar 

  • Mylius CF, Paap D, Takken T (2016) Reference value for the 6-minute walk test in children and adolescents: a systematic review. Expert Rev Resp Med 10(12):1335–1352

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Narayanan U, Davidson B, Weir S (2011) Gait Outcomes Assessment List (The GOAL): developing a meaningful outcome measure for ambulatory children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 53(Suppl 5):79

    Google Scholar 

  • Nichols DS, Case-Smith J (1996) Reliability and validity of the Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory. Pediatr Phys Ther 8(1):15–24

    Google Scholar 

  • Nicholson K, Weaver A, George A, Hulbert R, Church C, Lennon N (2017) Developing a clinical protocol for habitual physical activity monitoring in youth with cerebral palsy. Pediatr Phys Ther 29(1):2–7

    Google Scholar 

  • Nordmark E, Hagglund G, Jarnlo GB (1997) Reliability of the gross motor function measure in cerebral palsy. Scand J Rehabil Med 29(1):25–28

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nordmark E, Jarnlo GB, Hagglund G (2000) Comparison of the Gross Motor Function Measure and Paediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory in assessing motor function in children undergoing selective dorsal rhizotomy. Dev Med Child Neurol 42(4):245–252

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Novacheck TF, Stout JL, Tervo R (2000) Reliability and validity of the Gillette Functional Assessment Questionnaire as an outcome measure in children with walking disabilities. J Pediatr Orthop 20:75–81

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Novak I, Mcintyre S, Morgan C, Campbell L, Dark L, Morton N, Stumbles E, Wilson S, Goldsmith S (2013) A systematic review of interventions for children with cerebral palsy: state of the evidence. Dev Med Child Neurol 55:885–910

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Donoghue D, Kennedy N (2014) Validity of an activity monitor in young people with cerebral palsy Gross Motor Function Classification System level I. Physiol Meas 35(11):2307–2318

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Neil ME, Fragala-Pinkham M, Lennon N, George A, Forman J, Trost SG (2016) Reliability and validity of objective measures of physical activity in youth with cerebral palsy who are ambulatory. Phys Ther 96(1):37–45

    Google Scholar 

  • Ottanbacher KJ, Msall ME, Lyon NR, et al. (1997) Interrater agreement and stability of the functional independence measure for children (weeFIM): use in children with developmental disabilities. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 78(12):1309–1315

    Google Scholar 

  • Ottenbacher KJ, Msall ME, Lyon NR et al (1999) Measuring developmental and functional status in children with disabilities. Dev Med Child Neurol 41(3):186–194

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ottenbacher KJ, Msall ME, Lyon N, Duffy LC, Ziviani J, Granger CV, Braun S, Feidler RC (2000) The WeeFIM instrument: its utility in detecting change in children with developmental disabilities. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 81(10):1317–1326

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Palisano RJ (1993) Validity of goal attainment scaling in infants with motor delays. Phys Ther 73(10):651–658

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Palisano RJ, Haley SM, Brown DA (1992) Goal attainment scaling as a measure of change in infants with motor delays. Phys Ther 72(6):432–437

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Palisano R, Rosenbaum P, Walter S, Russell D, Wood E, Galuppi B (1997) Development and reliability of a system to classify gross motor function in children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 39:214–223

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Palisano RJ, Rosenbaum P, Bartlett D, Livingston MH (2008) Content validity of the expanded and revised Gross Motor Function Classification System. Dev Med Child Neurol 50:744–750

    Google Scholar 

  • Pirpiris M, Graham HK (2004) Uptime in children with cerebral palsy. J Pediatr Orthop 24(5):521–528

    Google Scholar 

  • Read HS, Hazlewood ME, Hillman SJ, Prescott RJ, Robb JE (2003) Edinburgh visual gait score for use in cerebral palsy. J Pediatr Orthop 23:296–301

    Google Scholar 

  • Reedman S, Boyd RN, Sakzewski L (2017) The efficacy of interventions to increase physical activity participation of children with cerebral palsy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Dev Med Child Neurol 59(10):1011–1018

    Google Scholar 

  • Ripat J, Etcheverry E, Cooper J, Tate RB (2001) A comparison of the Canadian occupational performance measure and the health assessment questionnaire. Can J Occup Ther 68(4):247–253

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts A, Stewart C, Freeman R (2015) Gait analysis to guide a selective dorsal rhizotomy program. Gait Posture 42(1):16–22

    Google Scholar 

  • Robin J, Graham HK, Selber P, Dobson F, Smith K, Baker R (2008) Proximal femoral geometry in cerebral palsy. A population-based cross-sectional study. J Bone Joint Surg Br 90:1372–1379

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rodda JM, Graham HK, Carson L, Galea MP, Wolfe R (2004) Sagittal gait patterns in spastic diplegia. J Bone Joint Surg Br 86(2):251–258

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rodda JM, Graham HK, Nattrass GR, Galea MP, Baker R, Wolfe R (2006) Correction of severe crouch gait in patients with spastic diplegia with use of multilevel orthopaedic surgery. J Bone Joint Surg Am 88(12):2653–2664

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenbaum PL, Walter SD, Hanna SE, Palisano RJ, Russell DJ, Raina P, Wood E, Bartlett DJ, Galuppi BE (2002) Prognosis for gross motor function in cerebral palsy: creation of motor development curves. JAMA 288:1357–1363

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenbaum PL, Livingston MH, Palisano RJ, Galuppi BE, Russell DJ (2007) Quality of life and health-related quality of life of adolescents with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 49:516–521

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross SM, MacDonald M, Bigouette JP (2016) Effects of strength training on mobility in adults with cerebral palsy: a systematic review. Disabil Health J 9(3):375–384

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruck-Gibis J, Plotkin H, Hanley J, et al. (2001) Reliability of the gross motor function measure for children with osteogenesis imperfect. Pediatr Phys Ther 13(1):10–17

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Russell DJ, Rosenbaum PL, Cadman DT, Gowland C, Hardy S, Jarvis S (1989) The gross motor function measure: a means to evaluate the effects of physical therapy. Dev Med Child Neurol 31:341–352

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Russell D, Rosenbaum P, Gowland C, Hardy S, Lane M, Plews N, McGavin H, Cadman DT, Jarvis S (1993) Gross motor function measure manual, Second edn. McMaster University, Hamilton

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell DJ, Avery LM, Rosenbaum PL, Raina PS, Walter SD, Palisano RJ (2000) Improved scaling of the gross motor function measure for children with cerebral palsy: evidence of reliability and validity. Phys Ther 80(9):873–885

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Russell DJ, Avery LM, Walter SD, Hanna SE, Bartlett DJ, Rosenbaum PL, Palisano RJ, Gorter JW (2010) Development and validation of item sets to improve efficiency of administration of the 66-item Gross Motor Function Measure in children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 52(2):e48–e54

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutz E, Tirosh O, Thomason P, Barg A, Graham HK (2012) Stability of the Gross Motor Function Classification System after single-event multilevel surgery in children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 54(12):1109–1113

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryll U, Bastiaenen C, De Bie R, Staal B (2011) Effects of leg muscle botulinum toxin A injections on walking in children with spasticity-related cerebral palsy: a systematic review. Dev Med Child Neurol 53(3):210–216

    Google Scholar 

  • Shore BJ, Allar BG, Miller PE, Matheney TH, Snyder BD, Fragala-Pinkham MA (2017) Evaluating the discriminant validity of the pediatric evaluation of disability inventory: computer adaptive test in children with cerebral palsy. Phys Ther 97(6):669–676

    Google Scholar 

  • Shull PB, Jirattigalachote W, Hunt MA, Cutkosky MR, Delp SL (2014) Quantified self and human movement: a review on the clinical impact of wearable sensing and feedback for gait analysis and intervention. Gait Posture 40(1):11–19

    Google Scholar 

  • Soo B, Howard JJ, Boyd RN, Reid SM, Lanigan A, Wolfe R, Reddihough D, Graham HK (2006) Hip displacement in cerebral palsy. J Bone Joint Surg Am 88(1):121–129

    Google Scholar 

  • Sperle PA, Ottenbacher KJ, Braun SL et al (1997) Equivalence reliability of the functional independence measure for children (WeeFIM) administration method. Am J Occup Ther 51(1):35–41

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Steenbeek D, Ketelaar M, Galama K, Gorter JW (2007) Goal attainment scaling in paediatric rehabilitation: a critical review of the literature. Dev Med Child Neurol 49:550–556

    Google Scholar 

  • Stout JL, Gage JR, Schwartz MH, Novacheck TF (2008) Distal femoral extension osteotomy and patellar tendon advancement to treat persistent crouch gait in cerebral palsy. J Bone Joint Surg 90-A:2470–2484

    Google Scholar 

  • Svehlik M, Kraus T, Steinwender G, Zwick EB, Saraph V, Linhart WE (2012) The Baumann procedure to correct equinus gait in children with diplegic cerebral palsy: long-term results. J Bone Joint Surg Br 94(8):1143–1147

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Svehlik M, Steinwender G, Lehmann T, Kraus T (2016) Predictors of outcome after single-event multilevel surgery in children with cerebral palsy: a retrospective ten-year follow-up study. Bone Joint J 98-B(2):278–281

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tedroff K, Lowing K, Astrom E (2015) A prospective cohort study investigating gross motor function, pain, and health-related quality of life 17 years after selective dorsal rhizotomy in cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 57(5):484–490

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas SS, Buckton CE, Phillips DS et al (2001) Interobserver reliability of the gross motor performance measure: preliminary results. Dev Med Child Neurol 43(2):97–102

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thomason P, Graham HK (2013) Rehabilitation of cerebral palsy. In: Iansek R, Morris M (eds) Rehabilitation in movement disorders. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomason P, Baker R, Dodd K, Taylor N, Selber P, Wolfe R, Graham HK (2011) Single-event multilevel surgery in children with spastic diplegia: a pilot randomized controlled trial. JBJS Am 93(5):451–460

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomason P, Selber P, Graham HK (2013) Single event multilevel surgery in children with bilateral spastic cerebral palsy: a 5 year prospective cohort study. Gait Posture 37(1):23–28

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomason P, Tan A, Donnan A, Rodda J, Graham HK, Narayanan U (2018) The Gait Outcomes Assessment List (GOAL): validation of a new assessment of gait function for children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 60(6):618–623

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson P, Beath T, Bell J, Jacobson G, Phair T, Salbach NM, Wright FV (2008) Test-retest reliability of the 10-metre fast walk test and 6-minute walk test in ambulatory school-aged children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 50(5):370–376

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Linden M (2012) Functional electrical stimulation in children and adolescents with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 54(11):972

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Linden ML, Hazlewood ME, Hillman SJ, Robb JE (2008) Functional electrical stimulation to the dorsiflexors and quadriceps in children with cerebral palsy. Pediatr Phys Ther 20(1):23–29

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Weegen S, Essers H, Spreeuwenberg M, Verwey R, Tange H, de Witte L, Meijer K (2015) Concurrent validity of the MOX activity monitor compared to the ActiGraph GT3X. Telemed J E-Health 21(4):259–266

    Google Scholar 

  • Verkerk GJ, Wolf MJ, Louwers AM, Meester-Delver A, Nollet F (2006) The reproducibility and validity of the Canadian Occupational Performance Measure in parents of children with disabilities. Clin Rehabil 20(11):980–988

    Google Scholar 

  • Vuillermin C, Rodda J, Rutz E, Shore BJ, Smith K, Graham HK (2011) Severe crouch gait in spastic diplegia can be prevented: a population-based study. JBJS Br 93(12):1670–1675

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang HY, Yang YH (2006) Evaluating the responsiveness of 2 versions of the gross motor function measure for children with cerebral palsy. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 87(1):51–56

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Waters E, Salmon L, Wake M, et al. (2000) The child health questionnaire in Australia: reliability, validity and population means. Aust New Zeal J Public Health 24(2):207–210

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Willemse L, Brehm MA, Scholtes VA, Jansen L, Woudenberg-Vos H, Dallmeijer AJ (2013) Reliability of isometric lower-extremity muscle strength measurements in children with cerebral palsy: implications for measurement design. Phys Ther 93(7):935–941

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams EN, Carroll SG, Reddihough DS, Phillips BA, Galea MP (2005) Investigation of the timed ‘up & go’ test in children. Dev Med Child Neurol 47(8):518–524

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson A, Kavanaugh A, Moher R, et al. (2011) Development and pilot testing of the challenge module: a proposed adjunct to the Gross Motor Function Measure for high-functioning children with cerebral palsy. Phys Occup Ther Pediatr 31(2):135–149

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson NC, Chong J, Mackey AH, Stott NS (2014) Reported outcomes of lower limb orthopaedic surgery in children and adolescents with cerebral palsy: a mapping review. Dev Med Child Neurol 56(9):808–814

    Google Scholar 

  • Winters TF, Gage JR, Hicks R (1987) Gait patterns in spastic hemiplegia in children and young adults. J Bone Joint Surg Am 69:437–441

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health. World Health Organization Geneva, Switzerland 2001 121–160 cited 2018. http://www.who.int/classifications/icf/en/

  • Wren TA, Rethlefsen SA, Healy BS, Do KP, Dennis SW, Kay RM (2005) Reliability and validity of visual assessments of gait using a modified physician rating scale for crouch and foot contact. J Pediatr Orthop 25(5):646–650

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright FV, Boschen KA (1993) The pediatric evaluation of disability inventory (PEDI): validation of anew functional assessment outcome instrument. Can J Rehabil 7:41–42

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright V, Kavanaugh A, Moher R, Wilson A, Gupta N, McInroy M (2009) Measuring higher level functional mobility skills in children with cerebral palsy (CP): preliminary work on a proposed challenge module for the Gross Motor Function Measure. Dev Med Child Neurol 51(suppl 2):61. 28

    Google Scholar 

  • Young NL, Williams JI, Yoshida KK, Bombardier C, Wright JG (1996) The context of measuring disability: does it matter whether capability or performance is measured? J Clin Epidemiol 49(10):1097–1101

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Young NL, Williams JI, Yoshida KK, Wright JG (2000) Measurement properties of the activities scale for kids. J Clin Epidemiol 53(2):125–137

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yu S, Rethlefsen SA, Wren TA, Kay RM (2015) Long-term ambulatory change after lower extremity orthopaedic surgery in children with cerebral palsy: a retrospective review. J Pediatr Orthop 35(3):285–289

    Google Scholar 

  • Ziviani J, Ottenbacher KJ, Shephard K, et al. (2001) Concurrent validity of the functional independence measure for children (WeeFIM) and the pediatric evaluation of disabilities inventory in children with developmental disabilities and acquired brain injuries. Phys Occup Ther Pediatr 21(2):91–101

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Hugh Williamson Gait Analysis Laboratory, Royal Children’s Hospital, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

    Pam Thomason

Authors
  1. Pam Thomason
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Pam Thomason .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Orthopaedics, Nemours/Alfred I. duPont Hospital for Children, Wilmington, DE, USA

    Freeman Miller

  2. Department of Pediatrics, Nemours/Alfred I. duPont Hospital for Children, Wilmington, USA

    Steven Bachrach

  3. Nemours/Alfred I. duPont Hospital for Children, Wilmington, DE, USA

    Nancy Lennon

  4. Columbia University, Irving Medical Center, Programs in Physical Therapy, New York, NY, USA

    Margaret E. O'Neil

Section Editor information

  1. Nemours/Alfred I. duPont Hospital for Children, Wilmington, DE, USA

    Nancy Lennon

  2. Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA

    Margaret O'Neil

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Thomason, P. (2020). Functional Mobility and Gait in Children and Youth with Cerebral Palsy. In: Miller, F., Bachrach, S., Lennon, N., O'Neil, M.E. (eds) Cerebral Palsy. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74558-9_171

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74558-9_171

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-74557-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-74558-9

  • eBook Packages: MedicineReference Module Medicine

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation