Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Contact Allergy to Metals

  • Living reference work entry
  • Latest version View entry history
  • First Online:
Contact Dermatitis

Abstract

Nickel, chromium, and cobalt remain the most frequent causes of contact allergy in the general population, certain occupational groups, and dermatitis patients. Consumer products and occupational exposure are the main sources of sensitization and elicitation, whereas the role of medical and surgical implant is unclear. Pure metals, alloys, platings, and compounds have different ability to cause sensitization and dermatitis. Nickel release from certain items in contact with the skin and hexavalent chromium in cement and leather are limited by EU regulation for allergy prevention. Strong indications concerning reduced exposure and health benefits have been noted following the implementation of the regulations; however, the problems are still very large. The presence of cobalt in leather and the association with dermatitis among cobalt allergic patients is a new understanding. Several other metals are less frequent sensitizers, and some cause cross-reactivity. New data on cocktail effects and reactivity to nickel following short-term exposure have been published. Spot tests remain useful in the assessment of metal exposure and exposure reduction, but clearly better techniques are needed for most metals.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Blaschko A (1889) Die Berufsdermatosen der Arbeiter. Das Galvanisierekzem. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 15:925–927

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Schittenhelm A, Stockinger W (1925) Über die Idiosynkrasie gegen Nickel (Nickel krätse) und ihre Beziehung zur Anaphylaxie. Z Gesamte Exp Med 45:58–74

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. McAlster AJ, McAlster AI (1931) Nickel sensitization from white gold spectacle frames. Am J Ophthalmol 14:925–926

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Alinaghi F, Bennike NH, Egeberg A, Thyssen JP, Johansen JD (2019) Prevalence of contact allergy in the general population: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Contact Dermatitis 80:77–85

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Lidén C, Andersson N, Julander A, Matura M (2016) Cobalt allergy: suitable test concentration, and concomitant reactivity to nickel and chromium. Contact Dermatitis 74:360–367

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Thyssen JP, Johansen JD, Carlsen BC, Menné T (2009) Prevalence of nickel and cobalt allergy among female patients with dermatitis before and after Danish government regulation: a 23-year retrospective study. J Am Acad Dermatol 61:799–805

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Flint GN (1998) A metallurgical approach to metal contact dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 39:213–221

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Menné T, Brandrup F, Thestrup-Pedersen K, Veien NK, Andersen JR, Yding F, Valeur G (1987) Patch test reactivity to nickel alloys. Contact Dermatitis 16:255–259

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. The Commission of the European Communities (2009) Comission regulation (ec) no 552/2009 of june 2009 amending regulation (ec) no 1907/2006 of the european parliament and of the council on the registration, evaluation, authorisation and restriction of chemicals (REACH) as regards to annex XVII. Off J Eur Union L64:7–31

    Google Scholar 

  10. Pedersen N, Fregert S, Brodelius P (1974) Release of nickel from silver coins. Acta Derm Venereol 54:231–234

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Emmett EA, Risby TH, Jiang L, Ng SK, Feinman S (1988) Allergic contact dermatitis to nickel: bioavailability from consumer products and provocation threshold. J Am Acad Dermatol 19:314–322

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Haudrechy P, Mantout B, Frappaz A, Rousseau D, Chabeau G, Faure M, Claudy A (1997) Nickel release from stainless steels. Contact Dermatitis 37:113–117

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Lidén C, Menné T, Burrows D (1996) Nickel-containing alloys and platings and their ability to cause dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 134:193–198

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Fischer LA, Menné T, Johansen JD (2005) Experimental nickel elicitation thresholds – a review focusing on occluded nickel exposure. Contact Dermatitis 52:57–64

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Fischer T (1984) Nickel release from ear piercing kits and earrings. Contact Dermatitis 10:39–41

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Novak N, Baurecht H, Schäfer T, Rodriguez E, Wagenpfeil S, Klopp N, Heinrich J, Behrendt H, Ring J, Wichmann E, Illig T, Weidinger S (2008) Loss-of-function mutations in the filaggrin gene and allergic contact sensitization to nickel. J Invest Dermatol 128:1430–1435

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Ross-Hansen K, Østergaard O, Tanassi JT, Thyssen JP, Johansen JD, Menné T, Heegaard NHH (2014) Filaggrin is a predominant member of the denaturation-resistant nickel-binding proteome of human epidermis. J Invest Dermatol 134:1164–1166

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Suzuki H (1998) Nickel and gold in skin lesions of pierced earlobes with contact dermatitis. A study using scanning electron microscopy and x-ray microanalysis. Arch Dermatol Res 290:523–527

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Morgan LG, Usher V (1994) Health problems associated with nickel refining and use. Ann Occup Hyg 38:189–198

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Clemmensen OJ, Menné T, Kaaber K, Solgaard P (1981) Exposure of nickel and the relevance of nickel sensitivity among hospital cleaners. Contact Dermatitis 7:14–18

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Wahlberg JE, Lindstedt G, Einarsson O (1977) Chromium, cobalt and nickel in Swedish cement, detergents, mould and cutting oils. Berufsdermatosen 25:220–228

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Wall LM, Calnan CD (1980) Occupational nickel dermatitis in the electroforming industry. Contact Dermatitis 6:414–420

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Kickinger-Lörsch A, Bruckner T, Mahler V (2015) Nickel and cobalt release from metal alloys of tools – a current analysis in Germany. Contact Dermatitis 73:1–7

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Thyssen JP, Gawkrodger DJ, White IR, Julander A, Menné T, Lidén C (2013) Coin exposure may cause allergic nickel dermatitis: a review. Contact Dermatitis 68:3–14

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Julander A, Midander K, Herting G, Thyssen JP, White IR, Odnevall Wallinder I, Lidén C (2013) New UK nickel-plated steel coins constitute an increased allergy and eczema risk. Contact Dermatitis 68:323–330

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Gawkrodger DJ, McLeod CW, Dobson K (2012) Nickel skin levels in different occupations and an estimate of the threshold for reacting to a single open application of nickel in nickel-allergic subjects. Br J Dermatol 166:82–87

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Shum KW, Meyer JD, Chen Y, Cherry N, Gawkrodger DJ (2003) Occupational contact dermatitis to nickel: experience of the British dermatologists (EPIDERM) and occupational physicians (OPRA) surveillance schemes. Occup Environ Med 60:954–957

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  28. Ringborg E, Lidén C, Julander A (2016) Nickel on the market: a baseline survey of articles in “prolonged contact” with skin. Contact Dermatitis 75:77–81

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Thyssen JP, Menné T, Johansen JD (2010) Identification of metallic items that caused nickel dermatitis in Danish patients. Contact Dermatitis 63:151–156

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Jensen P, Hamann D, Hamann CR, Jellesen MS, Jacob SE, Thyssen JP (2014) Nickel and cobalt release from children’s toys purchased in Denmark and the United States. Dermatitis 25:356–365

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Ahlström MG, Menné T, Thyssen JP, Johansen JD (2017) Nickel allergy in a Danish population 25 years after the first nickel regulation. Contact Dermatitis 76:325–332

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Basketter DA, Angelini G, Ingber A, Kern PS, Menné T (2003) Nickel, chromium and cobalt in consumer products: revisiting safe levels in the new millennium. Contact Dermatitis 49:1–7

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Erfani B, Lidén C, Midander K (2015) Short and frequent skin contact with nickel. Contact Dermatitis 73:222–230

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Ahlström MG, Midander K, Menné T, Lidén C, Johansen JD, Julander A, Thyssen JP (2019) Nickel deposition and penetration into the stratum corneum after short metallic nickel contact: an experimental study. Contact Dermatitis 80:86–93

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Schreiver I, Hesse B, Seim C, Castillo-Michel H, Anklamm L, Villanova J, Dreiack N, Lagrange A, Penning R, De Cuyper C, Tucoulou R, Bäumler W, Cotte M, Luch A (2019) Distribution of nickel and chromium containing particles from tattoo needle wear in humans and its possible impact on allergic reactions. Part Fibre Toxicol 16:33

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Serup J, Hutton Carlsen K, Dommershausen N, Sepehri M, Hesse B, Seim C, Luch A, Schreiver I (2020) Identification of pigments related to allergic tattoo reactions in 104 human skin biopsies. Contact Dermatitis 82(2):73–82

    Google Scholar 

  37. Thyssen JP, Skare L, Lundgren L, Menné T, Johansen JD, Maibach HI, Lidén C (2010) Sensitivity and specificity of the nickel spot (dimethylglyoxime) test. Contact Dermatitis 62:279–288

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Julander A, Skare L, Vahter M, Lidén C (2011) Nickel deposited on the skin-visualization by DMG test. Contact Dermatitis 64:151–157

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Wennervaldt M, Ahlström MG, Menné T, Thyssen JP, Johansen JD (2019) Diagnostic workup of occupational allergic nickel dermatitis in a nurse with multiple nickel exposures. Contact Dermatitis 81:311

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Staton I, Ma R, Evans N, Hutchinson RW, McLeod CW, Gawkrodger DJ (2006) Dermal nickel exposure associated with coin handling and in various occupational settings: assessment using a newly developed finger immersion method. Br J Dermatol 154:658–664

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Lidén C, Skare L, Lind B, Nise G, Vahter M (2006) Assessment of skin exposure to nickel, chromium and cobalt by acid wipe sampling and ICP-MS. Contact Dermatitis 54:233–238

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Erfani B, Midander K, Lidén C, Julander A (2017) Development, validation and testing of a skin sampling method for assessment of metal exposure. Contact Dermatitis 77:17–24

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Hostýnek JJ, Dreher F, Pelosi A, Anigbogu A, Maibach HI (2001) Human stratum corneum penetration by nickel- in vivo study of depth distribution after occlusive application of the metal as powder. Acta Derm Venereol Suppl 212:5–10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Peters K, Gammelgaard B, Menné T (1991) Nickel concentrations in fingernails as a measure of occupational exposure to nickel. Contact Dermatitis 25:237–241

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Allenby CF, Basketter DA (1994) The effect of repeated open exposure to low levels of nickel on compromised hand skin of nickel-allergic subjects. Contact Dermatitis 30:135–138

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Nielsen NH, Menné T, Kristiansen J, Christensen JM, Borg L, Poulsen LK (1999) Effects of repeated skin exposure to low nickel concentrations: a model for allergic contact dermatitis to nickel on the hands. Br J Dermatol 141:676–682

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Lidén C, Skare L, Nise G, Vahter M (2008) Deposition of nickel, chromium, and cobalt on the skin in some occupations – assessment by acid wipe sampling. Contact Dermatitis 58:347–354

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Johansen JD, Aalto-Korte K, Agner T, Andersen KE, Bircher A, Bruze M, Cannavó A, Giménez-Arnau A, Gonçalo M, Goossens A, John SM, Lidén C, Lindberg M, Mahler V, Matura M, Rustemeyer T, Serup J, Spiewak R, Thyssen JP, Vigan M, White IR, Wilkinson M, Uter W (2015) European Society of Contact Dermatitis guideline for diagnostic patch testing – recommendations on best practice. Contact Dermatitis 73:195–221

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Thyssen JP, Carlsen BC, Menné T (2008) Nickel sensitization, hand eczema, and loss-of-function mutations in the filaggrin gene. Dermatitis 19:303–307

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Novak N, Bieber T (2003) Allergic and nonallergic forms of atopic diseases. J Allergy Clin Immunol 112:252–262

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Thyssen JP, Menné T (2010) Metal allergys- a review on exposures, penetration, genetics, prevalence, and clinical implications. Chem Res Toxicol 23:309

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Kligman A (1966) The identification of contact allergens by human assay. 3. The maximization test: a procedure for screening and rating contact sensitizers. J Invest Dermatol 47:393–409

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Vandenberg JJ, Epstein WL (1963) Experimental nickel contact sensitization in man. J Invest Dermatol 41:413–418

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Cronin E (1972) Clinical prediction of patch test results. Trans St Johns Hosp Dermatol Soc 58:153–162

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Mortz CG, Bindslev-Jensen C, Andersen KE (2013) Nickel allergy from adolescence to adulthood in the TOACS cohort. Contact Dermatitis 68:348–356

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Schaeffer ACV, Andersen KE, Bindslev-Jensen C, Mortz CG (2016) The reproducibility of nickel, cobalt and chromate sensitization in patients tested at least twice in the period 1992–2014 with TRUE test®. Contact Dermatitis 75:111–113

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Hindsén M, Bruze M, Christensen OB, Hindsen M (1999) Individual variation in nickel patch test reactivity. Am J Contact Dermat 10:62–67

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Mortz CG, Kjaer HF, Eller E, Osterballe M, Norberg LA, Høst A, Bindslev-Jensen C, Andersen KE (2013) Positive nickel patch tests in infants are of low clinical relevance and rarely reproducible. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 24:84–87

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Menné T, Calvin G (1993) Concentration threshold of non-occluded nickel exposure in nickel-sensitive individuals and controls with and without surfactant. Contact Dermatitis 29:180–184

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Andersen KE, Lidén C, Hansen J, Vølund Å (1993) Dose-response testing with nickel sulphate using the TRUE test in nickel-sensitive individuals. Multiple nickel sulphate patch-test reactions do not cause an ‘angry back’. Br J Dermatol 129:50–56

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Hindsén M, Bruze M (1998) The significance of previous contact dermatitis for elicitation of contact allergy to nickel. Acta Derm Venereol 78:367–370

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Hostýnek JJ, Dreher F, Nakada T, Schwindt D, Anigbogu A, Maibach HI (2001) Human stratum corneum adsorption of nickel salts: investigation of depth profiles by tape stripping in vivo. Acta Derm Venereol Suppl 212:11–18

    Google Scholar 

  63. Wells GC (1956) Effects of nickel on the skin. Br J Dermatol 68:237–242

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Fischer LA, Johansen JD, Menné T (2007) Nickel allergy: relationship between patch test and repeated open application test thresholds. Br J Dermatol 157:723–729

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Fischer LA, Menné T, Johansen JD (2007) Dose per unit area – a study of elicitation of nickel allergy. Contact Dermatitis 56:255–261

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Lisby S, Hansen LH, Menné T, Baadsgaard O (1999) Nickel-induced proliferation of both memory and naive T cells in patch test-negative individuals. Clin Exp Immunol 117:217–222

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Bonnevie P (1936) Der klinische Wert der ekzempropen, an der nickeldiosynkrasie erläutert. Acta Dermatovener 17:376–388

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Calnan CD (1956) Nickel dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 68:229–236

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Marcussen PV (1957) Spread of nickel dermatitis. Dermatologica 115:596–607

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Brandrup F, Larsen FS (1979) Nickel dermatitis provoked by buttons in blue jeans. Contact Dermatitis 5:148–150

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Ahlström MG, Thyssen JP, Menné T, Midander K, Julander A, Lidén C, Johnsen CR, Johansen JD (2018) Short contact with nickel causes allergic contact dermatitis: an experimental study. Br J Dermatol 179:1127–1134

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Schram SE, Warshaw EM, Laumann A (2010) Nickel hypersensitivity: a clinical review and call to action. Int J Dermatol 49:115–125

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Hald M, Agner T, Blands J, Ravn H, Johansen JD (2009) Allergens associated with severe symptoms of hand eczema and a poor prognosis. Contact Dermatitis 61:101–108

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Thyssen JP, Linneberg A, Menné T, Johansen JD (2007) The epidemiology of contact allergy in the general population – prevalence and main findings. Contact Dermatitis 57:287–299

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Menné T, Borgan O, Green A (1982) Nickel allergy and hand dermatitis in a stratified sample of the Danish female population: an epidemiological study including a statistic appendix. Acta Derm Venereol 62:35–41

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Christensen OB (1982) Prognosis in nickel allergy and hand eczema. Contact Dermatitis 8:7–15

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Josefson A, Färm G, Magnuson A, Meding B (2009) Nickel allergy as risk factor for hand eczema: a population-based study. Br J Dermatol 160:828–834

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Thyssen JP, Linneberg A, Menné T, Nielsen NH, Johansen JD (2009) The association between hand eczema and nickel allergy has weakened among young women in the general population following the Danish nickel regulation: results from two cross-sectional studies. Contact Dermatitis 61:342–348

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Hindsén M, Bruze M, Christensen OB (1997) The significance of previous allergic contact dermatitis for elicitation of delayed hypersensitivity to nickel. Contact Dermatitis 37:101–106

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Agner T, Johansen JD, Overgaard L, Vølund A, Basketter D, Menné T (2002) Combined effects of irritants and allergens. Synergistic effects of nickel and sodium lauryl sulfate in nickel-sensitized individuals. Contact Dermatitis 47:21–26

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Jensen P, Thyssen JP, Johansen JD, Skare L, Menné T, Lidén C (2010) Occupational hand eczema caused by nickel and evaluated by quantitative exposure assessment. Contact Dermatitis 64:32–36

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Boonstra MB, Christoffers WA, Coenraads PJ, Schuttelaar ML (2015) Patch test results of hand eczema patients: relation to clinical types. J Eur Acad Dermatology Venereol 29:940–947

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Kalimo K, Lammintausta K, Jalava J, Niskanen T (1997) Is it possible to improve the prognosis in nickel contact dermatitis? Contact Dermatitis 37:121–124

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Shah M, Lewis FM, Gawkrodger DJ (1998) Nickel as an occupational allergen: a survey of 368 nickel-sensitive subjects. Arch Dermatol 134:1231–1236

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Halkier-Sørensen L (1996) Occupational skin diseases. Contact Dermatitis 35:1–120

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Hindsén M, Bruze M, Christensen OB (2001) Flare-up reactions after oral challenge with nickel in relation to challenge dose and intensity and time of previous patch test reactions. J Am Acad Dermatol 44:616–623

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Veien NK (2009) Acute and recurrent vesicular hand dermatitis. Dermatol Clin 27:337–353

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Andersen KE, Hjorth N, Menné T (1984) The baboon syndrome: systemically-induced allergic contact dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 10:97–100

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Christensen OB, Möller H (1975) External and internal exposure to the antigen in the hand eczema of nickel allergy. Contact Dermatitis 1:136–141

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Jensen CS, Menné T, Duus Johansen J (2006) Systemic contact dermatitis after oral exposure to nickel: a review with a modified meta-analysis. Contact Dermatitis 54:79–86

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Hindsén M, Christensen OB, Möller H (1994) Nickel levels in serum and urine in five different groups of eczema patients following oral ingestion of nickel. Acta Derm Venereol 74:176–178

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Muris J, Goossens A, Gonçalo M, Bircher AJ, Giménez-Arnau A, Foti C, Rustemeyer T, Feilzer AJ, Kleverlaan CJ (2015) Sensitization to palladium and nickel in Europe and the relationship with oral disease and dental alloys. Contact Dermatitis 72:286–296

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Sandhu A, Jacob SE, Vassantachart J (2015) Dermatologic surgical implications of nickel allergy. Dermatol Surg 41:1335–1337

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Mortz CG, Lauritsen JM, Bindslev-Jensen C, Andersen KE (2002) Nickel sensitization in adolescents and association with ear piercing, use of dental braces and hand eczema: the odense adolescence cohort study on atopic diseases and dermatitis (TOACS). Acta Derm Venereol 82:359–364

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Van Hoogstraten IM, Andersen KE, Von Blomberg BM, Boden D, Bruynzeel DP, Burrows D, Camarasa JG, Dooms-Goossens A, Kraal G, Lahti A (1991) Reduced frequency of nickel allergy upon oral nickel contact at an early age. Clin Exp Immunol 85:441–445

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  96. Smith-Sivertsen T, Dotterud LK, Lund E (1999) Nickel allergy and its relationship with local nickel pollution, ear piercing, and atopic dermatitis: a population-based study from Norway. J Am Acad Dermatol 40:726–735

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Santucci B, Cristaudo A, Cannistraci C, Picardo M (1988) Nickel sensitivity: effects of prolonged oral intake of the element. Contact Dermatitis 19:202–205

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Veien NK, Hattel T, Laurberg G (1993) Low nickel diet: an open, prospective trial. J Am Acad Dermatol 29:1002–1007

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Van Hoogstraten IM, Von Blomberg BM, Boden D, Kraal G, Scheper RJ (1994) Non-sensitizing epicutaneous skin tests prevent subsequent induction of immune tolerance. J Invest Dermatol 102:80–83

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Cavani A, Mei D, Guerra E, Corinti S, Giani M, Pirrotta L, Puddu P, Girolomoni G (1998) Patients with allergic contact dermatitis to nickel and nonallergic individuals display different nickel-specific T cell responses. Evidence for the presence of effector CD8+ and regulatory CD4+ T cells. J Invest Dermatol 111:621–628

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Rustemeyer T, Von Blomberg EBM, Van Hoogstraten IMW, Bruynzeel DP, Scheper RJ (2004) Analysis of effector and regulatory immune reactivity to nickel. Clin Exp Allergy 34:1458–1466

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Cavani A, Nasorri F, Prezzi C, Sebastiani S, Albanesi C, Girolomoni G (2000) Human CD4+ T lymphocytes with remarkable regulatory functions on dendritic cells and nickel-specific Th1 immune responses. J Invest Dermatol 114:295–302

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Cavani A, Nasorri F, Ottaviani C, Sebastiani S, De Pitá O, Girolomoni G (2003) Human CD25+ regulatory T cells maintain immune tolerance to nickel in healthy, nonallergic individuals. J Immunol 171:5760–5768

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Dubois B, Chapat L, Goubier A, Papiernik M, Nicolas J-F, Kaiserlian D (2003) Innate CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells are required for oral tolerance and inhibition of CD8+ T cells mediating skin inflammation. Blood 102:3295–3301

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Moed H, Von Blomberg BME, Bruynzeel DP, Scheper RJ, Gibbs S, Rustemeyer T (2005) Regulation of nickel-induced T-cell responsiveness by CD4+ CD25+ cells in contact allergic patients and healthy individuals. Contact Dermatitis 53:71–74

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Wu X, Roelofs-Haarhuis K, Zhang J, Nowak M, Layland L, Jermann E, Gleichmann E (2007) Dose dependence of oral tolerance to nickel. Int Immunol 19:965–975

    Google Scholar 

  107. Menné T, Holm NV (1983) Nickel allergy in a female twin population. Int J Dermatol 22:22–28

    Google Scholar 

  108. Prystowsky SD, Allen AM, Smith RW, Nonomura JH, Odom RB, Akers WA (1979) Allergic contact hypersensitivity to nickel, neomycin, ethylenediamine, and benzocaine relationships between age, sex, history of exposure, and reactivity to standard patch tests and use tests in a general population. Arch Dermatol 115:959–962

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Gamerdinger K, Moulon C, Karp DR, Van Bergen J, Koning F, Wild D, Pflugfelder U, Weltzien HU (2003) A new type of metal recognition by human T cells: contact residues for peptide-independent bridging of T cell receptor and major histocompatibility complex by nickel. J Exp Med 197:1345–1353

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  110. Garg S, Thyssen JP, Uter W, Schnuch A, Johansen JD, Menné T, Belloni Fortina A, Statham B, Gawkrodger DJ (2013) Nickel allergy following European Union regulation in Denmark, Germany, Italy and the U.K. Br J Dermatol 169:854–858

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Fall S, Bruze M, Isaksson M, Lidén C, Matura M, Stenberg B, Lindberg M (2015) Contact allergy trends in Sweden – a retrospective comparison of patch test data from 1992, 2000, and 2009. Contact Dermatitis 72:297–304

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Thyssen JP, Johansen JD, Menné T, Nielsen NH, Linneberg A (2009) Nickel allergy in Danish women before and after nickel regulation. N Engl J Med 360:2259–2260

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Rietschel RL, Fowler JF, Warshaw EM et al (2008) Detection of nickel sensitivity has increased in north American patch-test patients. Dermatitis 19:9–16

    Article  Google Scholar 

  114. Ahlström MG, Thyssen JP, Menné T, Johansen JD (2017) Prevalence of nickel allergy in Europe following the EU nickel directive – a review. Contact Dermatitis 77:193–200

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Uter W, Amario-Hita JC, Balato A, Ballmer-Weber B, Bauer A, Belloni Fortina A, Bircher A, Chowdhury MMU, Cooper SM, Czarnecka-Operacz M, Dugonik A, Gallo R, Giménez-Arnau A, Johansen JD, John SM, Kieć-Świerczyńska M, Kmecl T, Kręcisz B, Larese Filon F, Mahler V, Pesonen M, Rustemeyer T, Sadowska-Przytocka A, Sánchez-Pérez J, Schliemann S, Schuttelaar ML, Simon D, Spiewak R, Valiukevičienė S, Weisshaar E, White IR, Wilkinson SM (2017) European surveillance system on contact allergies (ESSCA): results with the European baseline series, 2013/14. J Eur Acad Dermatology Venereol 31:1516–1525

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Ahlström MG, Menné T, Thyssen JP, Johansen JD (2017) The European nickel regulation and changes since introduction. Contact Dermatitis 76:382–384

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Menné T, Rasmussen K (1990) Regulation of nickel exposure in Denmark. Contact Dermatitis 23:57–58

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Lidén C, Johnsson S (2001) Nickel on the Swedish market before the nickel directive. Contact Dermatitis 44:7–12

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Lidén C, Norberg K (2005) Nickel on the Swedish market. Follow-up after implementation of the nickel directive. Contact Dermatitis 52:29–35

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Biesterbos J, Yazar K, Lidén C (2010) Nickel on the Swedish market: follow-up 10 years after entry into force of the EU nickel directive. Contact Dermatitis 63:333–339

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Thyssen JP, Maibach HI (2008) Nickel release from earrings purchased in the United States: the San Francisco earring study. J Am Acad Dermatol 58:1000–1005

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Hamann CR, Hamann DJ, Hamann QJ, Hamann CP, Boonchai W, Li LF, Thyssen JP (2010) Assessment of nickel release from earrings randomly purchased in China and Thailand using the dimethylglyoxime test. Contact Dermatitis 62:232–240

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Cheong SH, Choi YW, Choi HY, Byun JY (2014) Nickel and cobalt release from jewellery and metal clothing items in Korea. Contact Dermatitis 70:11–18

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) (2014) Prolonged contact with the skin- definition building for nickel. https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/13641/nickel_restriction_prolonged_contact_skin_en.pdf. Last accessed 16 May 2019

  125. Gumulka M, Matura M, Lidén C, Kettelarij JAB, Julander A (2015) Nickel exposure when working out in the gym. Acta Derm Venereol 95:247–249

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Gawkrodger DJ, Healy J, Howe AM (1995) The prevention of nickel contact dermatitis. A review of the use of binding agents and barrier creams. Contact Dermatitis 32:257–265

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Kaaber K, Menne T, Tjell JC, Veien N (1979) Antabuse treatment of nickel dermatitis. Chelation – a new principle in the treatment of nickel dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 5:221–228

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Burrows D (1990) Metals, 2nd edn. WB Saunders, Philadelphia

    Google Scholar 

  129. Parkhurst H (1925) Dermatosis industrialis in a blue print worker due to chromium compounds. Arch Dermatol 12:253–256

    Article  Google Scholar 

  130. Thyssen JP, Jensen P, Carlsen BC, Engkilde K, Menné T, Johansen JD (2009) The prevalence of chromium allergy in Denmark is currently increasing as a result of leather exposure. Br J Dermatol 161:1288–1293

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. International Agency for Research on Cancer. Monographs on the identification of carcinogenic hazards to humans. https://monographs.iarc.fr/list-of-classifications

  132. Jacobs JJ, Urban RM, Hallab NJ, Skipor AK, Fischer A, Wimmer MA (2009) Metal-on-metal bearing surfaces. J Am Acad Orthop Surg 17:69–76

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Kim RH, Dennis DA, Carothers JT (2008) Metal-on-metal total hip arthroplasty. J Arthroplast 23:44–46

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Jacobs JJ, Urban RM, Hallab NJ, Skipor AK, Fischer A, Wimmer MA (2009) Metal-on-metal bearing surfaces. J Am Acad Orthop Surg 17:69–76

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Hallab N, Merritt K, Jacobs JJ (2001) Metal sensitivity in patients with orthopaedic implants. J Bone Joint Surg Am 83–A:428–436

    Article  Google Scholar 

  136. Gammelgaard B, Fullerton A, Avnstorp C, Menné T (1992) Permeation of chromium salts through human skin in vitro. Contact Dermatitis 27:302–310

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Burrows D (1984) The dichromate problem. Int J Dermatol 23:215–220

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Fregert S, Rorsman H (1966) Allergic reactions to trivalent chromium compounds. Arch Dermatol 93:711–713

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Hedberg YS, Erfani B, Matura M, Lidén C (2018) Chromium(III) release from chromium-tanned leather elicits allergic contact dermatitis: a use test study. Contact Dermatitis 78:307–314

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  140. Hansen MB, Johansen JD, Menné T (2003) Chromium allergy: significance of both Cr (III) and Cr (VI). Contact Dermatitis 49:206–212

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Hedberg YS (2018) Metal allergy: chromium. In: Metal allergy. From dermatitis to implant and device failure. Springer, Cham, pp 349–364

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  142. Fregert S (1981) Chromium valencies and cement dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 105(Suppl):7–9

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Fregert S, Gruvberger B (1972) Chemical properties of cement. Berufsdermatosen 20:238–248

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Turk K, Rietschel RL (1993) Effect of processing cement to concrete on hexavalent chromium levels. Contact Dermatitis 28:209–211

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Fregert S, Gruvberger B (1973) Correlation between alkali sulphate and water-soluble chromate in cement. Acta Derm Venereol 53:225–228

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Aslan A (2009) Determination of heavy metal toxicity of finished leather solid waste. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 82:633–638

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Hansen MB, Menne T, Johansen JD (2006) Cr(III) and Cr(VI) in leather and elicitation of eczema. Contact Dermatitis 54:278–282

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Nygren O, Wahlberg JE (1998) Speciation of chromium in tanned leather gloves and relapse of chromium allergy from tanned leather samples. Analyst 123:935–937

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Hedberg YS, Lidén C, Odnevall Wallinder I (2015) Chromium released from leather – I: exposure conditions that govern the release of chromium(III) and chromium(VI). Contact Dermatitis 72:206–215

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  150. Mathiason F, Lidén C, Hedberg YS (2015) Chromium released from leather – II: the importance of environmental parameters. Contact Dermatitis 72:275–285

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  151. Thyssen JP, Strandesen M, Poulsen PB, Menné T, Johansen JD (2012) Chromium in leather footwear – risk assessment of chromium allergy and dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 66:279–285

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Rydin S (2002) Investigation of the content of CrVI and CrIII in leather products on the Danish market. Danish Environ Prot Agency, Copenhagen

    Google Scholar 

  153. Estlander T, Jolanki R, Kanerva L (2000) Occupational allergic contact dermatitis from trivalent chromium in leather tanning. Contact Dermatitis 43:114

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Freeman S (1997) Shoe dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 36:247–251

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Geier J, Schnuch A, Frosch P (2000) Contact allergy to dichromate in women. Dermatol Beruf Umwelt 48:4–10

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Oumeish OY, Rushaidat QM (1980) Contact dermatitis to military boots in Jordan. Contact Dermatitis 6:498

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Rudzki E, Kozlowska A (1980) Causes of chromate dermatitis in Poland. Contact Dermatitis 6:191–196

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Shackelford KE, Belsito DV (2002) The etiology of allergic-appearing foot dermatitis: a 5-year retrospective study. J Am Acad Dermatol 47:715–721

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Geier J, Lessmann H, Hellweg B, Jappe U, Spornraft-Ragaller P, Fuchs T, Aberer W, Frosch PJ, Weisshaar E, Mahler V, Löffler H, Skudlik C, Szliska C, Koch P, Pföhler C, Lilie M, Becker D, Trcka J, Meyer J, Hahn J-U, Adam M (2009) Chromated metal products may be hazardous to patients with chromate allergy. Contact Dermatitis 60:199–202

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. Hansen MB, Rydin S, Menné T, Johansen JD (2002) Quantitative aspects of contact allergy to chromium and exposure to chrome-tanned leather. Contact Dermatitis 47:127–134

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. García-Pérez A, Martín-Pascual A, Sánchez-Misiego A (1973) Chrome content in bleaches and detergents. Its relationship to hand dermatitis in women. Acta Derm Venereol 53:353–358

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. Ingber A, Gammelgaard B, David M (1998) Detergents and bleaches are sources of chromium contact dermatitis in Israel. Contact Dermatitis 38:101–104

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. Lachapelle JM, Lauwerys R, Tennstedt D, Andanson J, Benezra C, Chabeau G, Ducombs G, Foussereau J, Lacroix M, Martin P (1980) Eau de Javel and prevention of chromate allergy in France. Contact Dermatitis 6:107–110

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Hostynek JJ, Maibach HI (1988) Chromium in US household bleach. Contact Dermatitis 18:206–209

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. Basketter D, Horev L, Slodovnik D, Merimes S, Trattner A, Ingber A (2001) Investigation of the threshold for allergic reactivity to chromium. Contact Dermatitis 44:70–74

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  166. Bregnbak D, Johansen JD, Jellesen MS, Zachariae C, Thyssen JP (2015) Chromium (VI) release from leather and metals can be detected with a diphenylcarbazide spot test. Contact Dermatitis 73:281–288

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Fowler JF, Kauffman CL, Marks JG, Proctor DM, Fredrick MM, Otani JM, Finley BL, Paustenbach DJ, Nethercott JR (1999) An environmental hazard assessment of low-level dermal exposure to hexavalent chromium in solution among chromium-sensitized volunteers. J Occup Environ Med 41:150–160

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  168. Horowitz SB, Finley BL (1994) Setting health-protective soil concentrations for dermal contact allergens: a proposed methodology. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 19:31–47

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. Nethercott J, Paustenbach D, Adams R, Fowler J, Marks J, Morton C, Taylor J, Horowitz S, Finley B (1994) A study of chromium induced allergic contact dermatitis with 54 volunteers: implications for environmental risk assessment. Occup Environ Med 51:371–380

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  170. Bruze M, Fregert S, Gruvberger B (1990) Patch testing with cement containing iron sulfate. Dermatol Clin 8:173–176

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  171. Eun HC, Marks R (1990) Dose-response relationships for topically applied antigens. Br J Dermatol 122:491–499

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Nielsen NH, Kristiansen J, Borg L, Christensen JM, Poulsen LK, Menné T (2000) Repeated exposures to cobalt or chromate on the hands of patients with hand eczema and contact allergy to that metal. Contact Dermatitis 43:212–215

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Smith A (1931) Chrome poisoning with manifestations of sensitization. J Am Med Assoc 97:95–98

    Article  Google Scholar 

  174. Engelhardt W, Mayer R (1931) Über Chromekzeme im Graphischen Gewerbe. Arch Gewerbepath Hyg 2:140–168

    Google Scholar 

  175. Kesten B, Laszlo E (1931) Dermatitis due to sensitization to contact substances: dermatitis venenata occupational dermatitis. Arch Dermatol 23:221–237

    Google Scholar 

  176. Arnold Busck KBP published by NNF (1939) Ätiologie und Pathogenese der Eczemkrankheiten. Nyt Nordisk Forlag, Arnold Busck, Kopenhagen

    Google Scholar 

  177. Wilkinson M, Gonçalo M, Aerts O, Badulici S, Bennike NH, Bruynzeel D, Dickel H, Garcia-Abujeta JL, Giménez-Arnau AM, Hamman C, Isaksson M, Johansen JD, Mahler V, Niklasson B, Orton D, Pigatto P, Ponyai G, Rustemeyer T, Schuttelaar MLA, Spiewak R, Thyssen JP, Uter W (2019) The European baseline series and recommended additions: 2019. Contact Dermatitis 80:1–4

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. DeKoven JG, Warshaw EM, Zug KA, Maibach HI, Belsito DV, Sasseville D, Taylor JS, Fowler JF, Mathias CGT, Marks JG, Pratt MD, Zirwas MJ, DeLeo VA (2018) North American contact dermatitis group patch test results: 2015–2016. Dermatitis 29:297–309

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  179. Burrows D, Andersen KE, Camarasa JG, Dooms-Goossens A, Ducombs G, Lachapelle JM, Menné T, Rycroft RJ, Wahlberg JE, White IR (1989) Trial of 0.5% versus 0.375% potassium dichromate. European Environmental and Contact Dermatitis Research Group (EECDRG). Contact Dermatitis 21:351

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  180. Frosch PJ, Aberer W (1988) Chrom-allergie. Dermatosen 36:168–169

    Google Scholar 

  181. Stern AH, Bagdon RE, Hazen RE, Marzulli FN (1993) Risk assessment of the allergic dermatitis potential of environmental exposure to hexavalent chromium. J Toxicol Environ Health 40:613–641

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. Hansen MB, Menne T, Johansen JD (2006) Cr(III) and Cr(VI) in leather and elicitation of eczema. Contact Dermatitis 54:278–282

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. Al-Tawil NG, Marcusson JA, Möller E (1983) Lymphocyte stimulation by trivalent and hexavalent chromium compounds in patients with chromium sensitivity. An aid to diagnosis. Acta Derm Venereol 63:296–303

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  184. Räsänen L, Sainio H, Lehto M, Reunala T (1991) Lymphocyte proliferation test as a diagnostic aid in chromium contact sensitivity. Contact Dermatitis 25:25–29

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  185. Martins LE, Duarte AJ, Aoki V, Nunes RS, Ogusuku S, Reis VMS (2008) Lymphocyte proliferation testing in chromium allergic contact dermatitis. Clin Exp Dermatol 33:472–477

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  186. Lindemann M, Rietschel F, Zabel M, Grosse-Wilde H (2008) Detection of chromium allergy by cellular in vitro methods. Clin Exp Allergy 38:1468–1475

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Thormann J, Jespersen NB, Joensen HD (1979) Persistence of contact allergy to chromium. Contact Dermatitis 5:261–264

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. Wall LM, Gebauer KA (1991) A follow-up study of occupational skin disease in Western Australia. Contact Dermatitis 24:241–243

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. Landeck L, Uter W, John SM (2012) Patch test characteristics of patients referred for suspected contact allergy of the feet-retrospective 10-year cross-sectional study of the IVDK data. Contact Dermatitis 66:271–278

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. Anderson RA (1995) Chromium and parenteral nutrition. Nutrition 11:83–86

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. Accominotti M, Bost M, Haudrechy P, Mantout B, Cunat PJ, Comet F, Mouterde C, Plantard F, Chambon P, Vallon JJ (1998) Contribution to chromium and nickel enrichment during cooking of foods in stainless steel utensils. Contact Dermatitis 38:305–310

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  192. Kaaber K, Veien NK (1977) The significance of chromate ingestion in patients allergic to chromate. Acta Derm Venereol 57:321–323

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  193. Proctor DM, Fredrick MM, Scott PK, Paustenbach DJ, Finley BL (1998) The prevalence of chromium allergy in the United States and its implications for setting soil cleanup: a cost-effectiveness case study. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 28:27–37

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  194. Kerger BD, Paustenbach DJ, Corbett GE, Finley BL (1996) Absorption and elimination of trivalent and hexavalent chromium in humans following ingestion of a bolus dose in drinking water. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 141:145–158

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  195. Kerger BD, Finley BL, Corbett GE, Dodge DG, Paustenbach DJ (1997) Ingestion of chromium(VI) in drinking water by human volunteers: absorption, distribution, and excretion of single and repeated doses. J Toxicol Environ Health 50:67–95

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  196. Kaaber K, Sjølin KE, Menné T (1983) Elbow eruptions in nickel and chromate dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 9:213–216

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  197. Costa M (1998) Carcinogenic metals. Sci Prog 81(Pt 4):329–339

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  198. Bregnbak D, Johansen JD, Jellesen MS, Zachariae C, Menné T, Thyssen JP (2015) Chromium allergy and dermatitis: prevalence and main findings. Contact Dermatitis 73:261–280

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  199. Peltonen L, Fräki J (1983) Prevalence of dichromate sensitivity. Contact Dermatitis 9:190–194

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  200. Balasubramaniam P, Gawkrodger DJ (2003) Chromate: still an important occupational allergen for men in the UK. Contact Dermatitis 49:162–163

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  201. Bock M, Schmidt A, Bruckner T, Diepgen TL (2003) Occupational skin disease in the construction industry. Br J Dermatol 149:1165–1171

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  202. Goon AT, Goh CL (2000) Epidemiology of occupational skin disease in Singapore 1989–1998. Contact Dermatitis 43:133–136

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  203. Kanerva L, Jolanki R, Estlander T, Alanko K, Savela A (2000) Incidence rates of occupational allergic contact dermatitis caused by metals. Am J Contact Dermat 11:155–160

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  204. Uter W, Rühl R, Pfahlberg A, Geier J, Schnuch A, Gefeller O (2004) Contact allergy in construction workers: results of a multifactorial analysis. Ann Occup Hyg 48:21–27

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  205. Alinaghi F, Zachariae C, Thyssen JP, Johansen JD (2019) Temporal changes in chromium allergy in Denmark between 2002 and 2017. Contact Dermatitis 80(3):156–161

    Google Scholar 

  206. Uter W, Gefeller O, Giménez-Arnau A, Frosch P, Duus Johansen J, Schuttelaar M-L, Rustemeyer T, Larese Filon F, Dugonik A, Bircher A, Wilkinson M (2015) Characteristics of patients patch tested in the European surveillance system on contact allergies (ESSCA) network, 2009–2012. Contact Dermatitis 73:82–90

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  207. Nielsen NH, Menné T (1992) Allergic contact sensitization in an unselected Danish population. The Glostrup Allergy Study, Denmark. Acta Derm Venereol 72:456–460

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  208. Thyssen JP, Linneberg a, Menné T, Nielsen NH, Johansen JD (2009) Contact allergy to allergens of the TRUE-test (panels 1 and 2) has decreased modestly in the general population. Br J Dermatol 161:1124–1129

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  209. Diepgen TL, Ofenloch RF, Bruze M, Bertuccio P, Cazzaniga S, Coenraads P-J, Elsner P, Goncalo M, Svensson Å, Naldi L (2016) Prevalence of contact allergy in the general population in different European regions. Br J Dermatol 174:319–329

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  210. Lagrelius M, Wahlgren CF, Matura M, Kull I, Lidén C (2016) High prevalence of contact allergy in adolescence: results from the population-based BAMSE birth cohort. Contact Dermatitis 74:44–51

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  211. Irvine C, Pugh CE, Hansen EJ, Rycroft RJ (1994) Cement dermatitis in underground workers during construction of the channel tunnel. Occup Med (Lond) 44:17–23

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  212. Geier J, Lessmann H, Skudlik C, Ballmer-Weber BK, Weisshaar E, Uter W, Schnuch A (2017) Occupational contact allergy in bricklayers, tile setters etc. – current spectrum of sensitization and recent time trends. Allergol Select 1:127–140

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  213. Duus Johansen J, Menné T, Christophersen J, Kaaber K, Veien N (2000) Changes in the pattern of sensitization to common contact allergens in Denmark between 1985–86 and 1997–98, with a special view to the effect of preventive strategies. Br J Dermatol 142:490–495

    Article  Google Scholar 

  214. Avnstorp C (1991) Risk factors for cement eczema. Contact Dermatitis 25:81–88

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  215. Basketter DA, Briatico-Vangosa G, Kaestner W, Lally C, Bontinck WJ (1993) Nickel, cobalt and chromium in consumer products: a role in allergic contact dermatitis? Contact Dermatitis 28:15–25

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  216. Zachariae CO, Agner T, Menné T (1996) Chromium allergy in consecutive patients in a country where ferrous sulfate has been added to cement since 1981. Contact Dermatitis 35:83–85

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  217. Estlander T (1990) Occupational skin disease in Finland. Observations made during 1974–1988 at the Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki. Acta Derm Venereol Suppl 155:1–85

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  218. Basketter D (1993) Nickel, cobalt and chromium in consumer products: a role in allergenic contact dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 28:15–25

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  219. Wass U, Wahlberg JE (1991) Chromated steel and contact allergy. Recommendation concerning a “threshold limit value” for the release of hexavalent chromium. Contact Dermatitis 24:114–118

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  220. Jaeger H, Pelloni E (1950) Positive skin tests with bichromates in cement eczema. Dermatologica 100:207–216

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  221. Burckhardt W, Frenk E, de Sépibus D, Paschoud JM, Szadurski J, Schwarz K (1971) Decrease of the eczematous effect of cement by ferrous sulphate. Dermatologica 142:271–273

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  222. Fregert S, Gruvberger B, Sandahl E (1979) Reduction of chromate in cement by iron sulfate. Contact Dermatitis 5:39–42

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  223. Gailhofer G, Ludvan M (1987) Change in the allergen spectrum in contact eczema 1975–1984. Derm Beruf Umwelt 35:12–16

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  224. Färm G (1986) Changing patients in chromate allergy. Contact Dermatitis 15:298–299

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  225. Goh CL, Gan SL (1996) Change in cement manufacturing process, a cause for decline in chromate allergy? Contact Dermatitis 34:51–54

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  226. Roto P, Sainio H, Reunala T, Laippala P (1996) Addition of ferrous sulfate to cement and risk of chromium dermatitis among construction workers. Contact Dermatitis 34:43–50

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  227. Thyssen JP, Johansen JD, Menné T (2007) Contact allergy epidemics and their controls. Contact Dermatitis 56:185–195

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  228. Cobalt Institute. Cobalt facts. https://www.cobaltinstitute.org/

  229. Allenby CF, Basketter DA (1989) Minimum eliciting patch test concentrations of cobalt. Contact Dermatitis 20:185–190

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  230. Fischer LA, Johansen JD, Voelund A, Lidén C, Julander A, Midander K, Menné T, Thyssen JP (2016) Elicitation threshold of cobalt chloride: analysis of patch test dose-response studies. Contact Dermatitis 74:105–109

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  231. Bonefeld CM, Nielsen MM, Vennegaard MT, Johansen JD, Geisler C, Thyssen JP (2015) Nickel acts as an adjuvant during cobalt sensitization. Exp Dermatol 24:229–231

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  232. Tandon R, Aarts B (1993) Chromium, nickel and cobalt contents of some Australian cements. Contact Dermatitis 28:201–205

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  233. Hamann CR, Hamann D, Simonsen AB, Zachariae C, Johansen JD, Thyssen JP (2019) Cobalt content of a convenience sample of leather shoes and gloves in Denmark. Contact Dermatitis 80:248–249

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  234. Midander K, Julander A, Skare L, Thyssen JP, Lidén C (2013) The cobalt spot test – further insights into its performance and use. Contact Dermatitis 69:280–287

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  235. Thyssen JP, Menné T, Johansen JD, Lidén C, Julander A, Møller P, Jellesen MS (2010) A spot test for detection of cobalt release- early experience and findings. Contact Dermatitis 63:63–69

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  236. Hamann D, Hamann CR, Kishi P, Menné T, Johansen JD, Thyssen JP (2016) Leather contains cobalt and poses a risk of allergic contact dermatitis: cobalt Indicator solution and x-ray florescence spectrometry as screening tests. Dermatitis 27:202–207

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  237. Al-Imam H, Benetti AR, Özhayat EB, Pedersen AML, Johansen JD, Thyssen JP, Jellesen MS, Gotfredsen K (2016) Cobalt release and complications resulting from the use of dental prostheses. Contact Dermatitis 75:377–383

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  238. Julander A, Hindsén M, Skare L, Lidén C (2009) Cobalt-containing alloys and their ability to release cobalt and cause dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 60:165–170

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  239. Julander A, Skare L, Mulder M, Grandér M, Vahter M, Lidén C (2010) Skin deposition of nickel, cobalt, and chromium in production of gas turbines and space propulsion components. Ann Occup Hyg 54:340–350

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  240. Kettelarij J, Midander K, Lidén C, Julander A (2018) Contamination of skin and surfaces by cobalt in the hard metal industry. Contact Dermatitis 79:226–231

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  241. Linnainmaa M, Kiilunen M (1997) Urinary cobalt as a measure of exposure in the wet sharpening of hard metal and stellite blades. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 69:193–200

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  242. Kettelarij J, Midander K, Lidén C, Bottai M, Julander A (2018) Neglected exposure route: cobalt on skin and its associations with urinary cobalt levels. Occup Environ Med 75:837–842

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  243. Kettelarij JAB, Lidén C, Axén E, Julander A (2014) Cobalt, nickel and chromium release from dental tools and alloys. Contact Dermatitis 70:3–10

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  244. Thyssen JP, Johansen JD, Jellesen MS, Menné T (2012) Cobalt spot test used for diagnosis of occupationally-related exposure to cobalt-containing powder. Contact Dermatitis 66:228–229

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  245. Thyssen JP, Jellesen MS, Menné T, Lidén C, Julander A, Møller P, Johansen JD (2010) Cobalt release from inexpensive jewellery: has the use of cobalt replaced nickel following regulatory intervention? Contact Dermatitis 63:70–76

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  246. Hamann D, Thyssen JP, Hamann CR, Hamann C, Menné T, Johansen JD, Spiewak R, Maibach H, Lundgren L, Lidén C (2015) Jewellery: alloy composition and release of nickel, cobalt and lead assessed with the EU synthetic sweat method. Contact Dermatitis 73:231–238

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  247. Boonchai W, Maneeprasopchoke P, Suiwongsa B, Kasemsarn P (2015) Assessment of nickel and cobalt release from jewelry from a non-nickel directive country. Dermatitis 26:44–48

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  248. Uter W, Schmid M, Schmidt O, Bock C, Wolter J (2014) Cobalt release from earrings and piercing jewellery – analytical results of a German survey. Contact Dermatitis 70:369–375

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  249. The ESSCA Writing group (2008) The European surveillance system of contact allergies (ESSCA): results of patch testing the standard series, 2004. J Eur Acad Dermatology Venereol 22:174–181

    Google Scholar 

  250. Hegewald J, Uter W, Pfahlberg A, Geier J, Schnuch A (2005) A multifactorial analysis of concurrent patch-test reactions to nickel, cobalt, and chromate. Allergy 60:372–378

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  251. Fregert S, Rorsman H (1966) Allergy to chromium, nickel and cobalt. Acta Derm Venereol 46:144–148

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  252. Fowler JJ (1990) Allergic contact dermatitis to metals. Am J Contact Dermat 1:212–223

    Article  Google Scholar 

  253. Schwartz L, Peck SMBK (1945) Allergic dermatitis due to metallic cobalt. J Allergy Clin Immunol 16:51–53

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  254. Pirila V (1953) Sensitization to cobalt in pottery workers. Acta Derm Venereol 33:193–198

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  255. Fischer T, Rystedt I (1983) Cobalt allergy in hard metal workers. Contact Dermatitis 9:115–121

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  256. Rystedt I, Fischer T (1983) Relationship between nickel and cobalt sensitization in hard metal workers. Contact Dermatitis 9:195–200

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  257. Condé-Salazar L, Guimaraens D, Villegas C, Romero A, Gonzalez MA (1995) Occupational allergic contact dermatitis in construction workers. Contact Dermatitis 33:226–320

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  258. Geier J, Schnuch A (1995) A comparison of contact allergies among construction and nonconstruction workers attending contact dermatitis clinics in Germany: results of the Information Network of Departments of Dermatology from November 1989 to July 1993. Am J Contact Dermat 6:86–94

    Article  Google Scholar 

  259. Geier J, Lessmann H, Schnuch A, Uter W (2004) Contact sensitizations in metalworkers with occupational dermatitis exposed to water-based metalworking fluids: results of the research project “FaSt”. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 77:543–551

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  260. Burrows D, Adams RMFG (1999) Metals. In: Adams RM (ed) Occupational skin disease, 3rd edn. Saunders, Philadelphia, pp 395–433

    Google Scholar 

  261. Lidén C, Wahlberg JE (1994) Cross-reactivity to metal compounds studied in guinea pigs induced with chromate or cobalt. Acta Derm Venereol 74:341–343

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  262. Wahlberg JE, Lidén C (2000) Cross-reactivity patterns of cobalt and nickel studied with repeated open applications (ROATS) to the skin of guinea pigs. Am J Contact Dermat 11:42–48

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  263. Lidén C, Wahlberg JEMH (1995) Skin. In: Goyer RA, Klaassen CD, Waalkes MP (eds) Metal toxicology. Academic Press, New York, pp 447–464

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  264. Fischer T, Rystedt I (1985) False-positive, follicular and irritant patch teat reactions to metal salts. Contact Dermatitis 12:93–98

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  265. de Fine Olivarius F, Menné T (1992) Skin reactivity to metallic cobalt in patients with a positive patch test to cobalt chloride. Contact Dermatitis 27:241–243

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  266. Netterlid E, Hindsén M, Björk J, Ekqvist S, Güner N, Henricson KA, Bruze M (2009) There is an association between contact allergy to aluminium and persistent subcutaneous nodules in children undergoing hyposensitization therapy. Contact Dermatitis 60:41–49

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  267. Bruze M, Lundh K, Gruvberger B, Hindsén M (2008) Aluminium chloride hexahydrate at 2% is insufficient to trace contact allergy to aluminium. Contact Dermatitis 59:183–184

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  268. Johannessen H, Bergan-Skar B (1980) Itching problems among potroom workers in factories using recycled alumina. Contact Dermatitis 6:42–43

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  269. Hall AF (1944) Occupational contact dermatitis among aircraft workers. J Am Med Assoc 125:179–185

    Article  Google Scholar 

  270. Peters T, Hani N, Kirchberg K, Gold H, Hunzelmann N, Scharffetter-Kochanek K (1998) Occupational contact sensitivity to aluminium in a machine construction plant worker. Contact Dermatitis 39:322–323

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  271. Lidén C (1994) Cold-impregnated aluminium. A new source of nickel exposure. Contact Dermatitis 31:22–24

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  272. Williams S, Freemont AJ (1984) Aerosol antiperspirants and axillary granulomata. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 288:1651–1652

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  273. Dwyer CM, Kerr RE (1993) Contact allergy to aluminium in 2 brothers. Contact Dermatitis 29:36–38

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  274. Veien NK, Hattel T, Laurberg G (1993) Systemically aggravated contact dermatitis caused by aluminium in toothpaste. Contact Dermatitis 28:199–200

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  275. Frost L, Johansen P, Pedersen S, Veien N, Ostergaard PA, Nielsen MH (1985) Persistent subcutaneous nodules in children hyposensitized with aluminium-containing allergen extracts. Allergy 40:368–372

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  276. Veien NK, Hattel T, Justesen O, Nørholm A (1986) Aluminium allergy. Contact Dermatitis 15:295–297

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  277. Clemmensen O, Knudsen HE (1980) Contact sensitivity to aluminium in a patient hyposensitized with aluminium precipitated grass pollen. Contact Dermatitis 6:305–308

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  278. Böhler-Sommeregger K, Lindemayr H (1986) Contact sensitivity to aluminium. Contact Dermatitis 15:278–281

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  279. Fawcett HA, McGibbon D, Cronin E (1985) Persistent vaccination granuloma due to aluminium hypersensitivity. Br J Dermatol 113:101–102

    Article  Google Scholar 

  280. Nielsen AO, Kaaber K, Veien NK (1992) [Aluminum allergy caused by DTP vaccine]. Ugeskr Laeger 154:1900–1901

    Google Scholar 

  281. Gente Lidholm A, Inerot A, Gillstedt M, Bergfors E, Trollfors B (2018) Comparison of reactivity to a metallic disc and 2% aluminium salt in 366 children, and reproducibility over time for 241 young adults with childhood vaccine-related aluminium contact allergy. Contact Dermatitis 79:26–30

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  282. Gente Lidholm A, Bergfors E, Inerot A, Blomgren U, Gillstedt M, Trollfors B (2013) Unexpected loss of contact allergy to aluminium induced by vaccine. Contact Dermatitis 68:286–292

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  283. Kriebel D, Sprince NL, Eisen EA, Greaves IA, Feldman HA, Greene RE (1988) Beryllium exposure and pulmonary function: a cross sectional study of beryllium workers. Occup Environ Med 45:167–173

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  284. Bobka CA, Stewart LA, Engelken GJ, Golitz LE, Newman LS (1997) Comparison of in vivo and in vitro measures of beryllium sensitization. J Occup Environ Med 39:540–547

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  285. Berlin JM, Taylor JS, Sigel JE, Bergfeld WF, Dweik RA (2003) Beryllium dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol 49:939–941

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  286. Curtis GH (1951) Cutaneous hypersensitivity due to beryllium; a study of thirteen cases. AMA Arch Derm Syphilol 64:470–482

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  287. Vilaplana J, Romaguera C, Grimalt F (1992) Occupational and non-occupational allergic contact dermatitis from beryllium. Contact Dermatitis 26:295–298

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  288. Haberman AL, Pratt M, Storrs FJ (1993) Contact dermatitis from beryllium in dental alloys. Contact Dermatitis 28:157–162

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  289. Torgerson RR, Davis MDP, Bruce AJ, Farmer SA, Rogers RS (2007) Contact allergy in oral disease. J Am Acad Dermatol 57:315–321

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  290. Vahter M, Åkesson A, Lidén C, Ceccatelli S, Berglund M (2007) Gender differences in the disposition and toxicity of metals. Environ Res 104:85–95

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  291. Wahlberg JE (1977) Routine patch testing with cadmium chloride. Contact Dermatitis 3:293–296

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  292. Geier J, Vieluf D, Fuchs T (1996) Patch testing with cadmium chloride. Contact Dermatitis 34:73–74

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  293. Gebhart M, Geier J (1996) Evaluation of patch test results with denture material series. Contact Dermatitis 34:191–195

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  294. Kaaber S, Cramers M, Jepsen FL (1982) The role of cadmium as a skin sensitizing agent in denture and non-denture wearers. Contact Dermatitis 8:308–313

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  295. Björnberg A (1963) Reactions to light in yellow tattoos from cadmium sulfide. Arch Dermatol 88:267–271

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  296. Wahlberg JE, Boman A (1979) Guinea pig maximization test method – cadmium chloride. Contact Dermatitis 5:405

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  297. Fage SW, Faurschou A, Thyssen JP (2014) Copper hypersensitivity. Contact Dermatitis 71:191–201

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  298. Karlberg AT, Boman A, Wahlberg JE (1983) Copper – a rare sensitizer. Contact Dermatitis 9:134–139

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  299. Hostynek JJ, Maibach HI (2003) Copper hypersensitivity: dermatologic aspects – an overview. Rev Environ Health 18:153–183

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  300. Barranco VP (1972) Eczematous dermatitis caused by internal exposure to copper. Arch Dermatol 106:386–387

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  301. Romaguera C, Grimalt F (1981) Contact dermatitis from a copper-containing intrauterine contraceptive device. Contact Dermatitis 7:163–164

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  302. Nordlind K, Lidén S (1992) Patch test reactions to metal salts in patients with oral mucosal lesions associated with amalgam restorations. Contact Dermatitis 27:157–160

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  303. Santosh V, Ranjith K, Shenoi SD, Sachin V, Balachandran C (1999) Results of patch testing with dental materials. Contact Dermatitis 40:50–51

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  304. Frykholm KO, Frithiof L, Fernström AI, Moberger G, Blohm SG, Björn E (1969) Allergy to copper derived from dental alloys as a possible cause of oral lesions of lichen planus. Acta Derm Venereol 49:268–281

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  305. Wöhrl S, Hemmer W, Focke M, Gtz M, Jarisch R (2001) Copper allergy revisited. J Am Acad Dermatol 45:863–870

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  306. Baskatter DA, Gerberick GF, Kimber I, Loveless SE (1996) The local lymph node assay: a viable alternative to currently accepted skin sensitization tests. Food Chem Toxicol 34:985–997

    Article  Google Scholar 

  307. Walker-Smith PK, Keith DJ, Kennedy CTC, Sansom JE (2016) Allergic contact dermatitis caused by copper. Contact Dermatitis 75:186–187

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  308. Horton E, Montgomery R, Wilkinson M (2017) Allergic contact dermatitis caused by copper in a malachite necklace. Contact Dermatitis 77:120–121

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  309. Bruze M, Andersen KE (1999) Gold-a controversial sensitizer. European Environmental and Contact Dermatitis Research Group. Contact Dermatitis 40:295–299

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  310. Chen JK, Lampel HP (2015) Gold contact allergy: clues and controversies. Dermatitis 26:69–77

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  311. Björkner B, Bruze M, Möller H (1994) High frequency of contact allergy to gold sodium thiosulfate. An indication of gold allergy? Contact Dermatitis 30:144–151

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  312. Isaksson M, Bruze M (2000) Gold. In: Kanerva L, Elsner P, Wahlberg JE, Maibach HI (eds) Handbook of occupational dermatology. Springer, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  313. Brown DH, Smith WE, Fox P (1982) The reactions of gold (0) with amino acids and the significance of these reactions in the biochemistry of gold. Inorg Chim Acta 67:27–30

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  314. Lidén C, Nordenadler M, Skare L (1998) Metal release from gold-containing jewelry materials: no gold release detected. Contact Dermatitis 39:281–285

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  315. Svedman C, Gruvberger B, Dahlin J, Persson L, Möller H, Bruze M (2013) Evaluation of a method for detecting metal release from gold; cysteine enhances release. Acta Derm Venereol 93:577–578

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  316. Svedman C, Möller H, Gruvberger B, Gustavsson C-G, Dahlin J, Persson L, Bruze M (2014) Implants and contact allergy: are sensitizing metals released as haptens from coronary stents? Contact Dermatitis 71:92–97

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  317. Ahnlide I, Ahlgren C, Björkner B, Bruze M, Lundh T, Möller H, Nilner K, Schütz A (2002) Gold concentration in blood in relation to the number of gold restorations and contact allergy to gold. Acta Odontol Scand 60:301–305

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  318. Bruze M, Edman B, Björkner B, Möller H (1994) Clinical relevance of contact allergy to gold sodium thiosulfate. J Am Acad Dermatol 31:579–583

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  319. Schaffran RM, Storrs FJ, Schalock P (1999) Prevalence of gold sensitivity in asymptomatic individuals with gold dental restorations. Am J Contact Dermat 10:201–206

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  320. Ahlgren C, Ahnlide I, Björkner B, Bruze M, Liedholm R, Möller H, Nilner K (2002) Contact allergy to Gold is correlated to dental Gold. Acta Derm Venereol 82:41–44

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  321. Ekqvist S, Svedman C, Möller H, Kehler M, Pripp CM, Björk J, Gruvberger B, Holmström E, Gustavsson CG, Bruze M (2007) High frequency of contact allergy to gold in patients with endovascular coronary stents. Br J Dermatol 157:730–738

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  322. Eisler R (2003) Chrysotherapy: a synoptic review. Inflamm Res 52:487–501

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  323. Björkner B, Bruze M, Möller H, Salemark L (2008) Allergic contact dermatitis as a complication of lid loading with gold implants. Dermatitis 19:148–153

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  324. Fowler JF (1987) Selection of patch test materials for gold allergy. Contact Dermatitis 17:23–25

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  325. Bruze B, Björkner B, Möller H (1999) Patch testing with gold sodium thiosulfate. Jadassohn Centenary Congress, London. (abstract book 14)

    Google Scholar 

  326. Hamann D, Bruze M, Fowler JF, Hamann CR, Andersen KE, Hamann CP (2018) Excipient and dose per unit area affect sensitivity when patch testing with gold sodium thiosulfate. Dermatitis 29:258–263

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  327. Bruze M, Hedman H, Björkner B, Möller H (1995) The development and course of test reactions to gold sodium thiosulfate. Contact Dermatitis 33:386–391

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  328. Ahlgren C, Isaksson M, Möller H, Axéll T, Liedholm R, Bruze M (2014) The necessity of a test reading after 1 week to detect late positive patch test reactions in patients with oral lichen lesions. Clin Oral Investig 18:1525–1531

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  329. Suzuki K, Yagami A, Ito A, Kato A, Miyazawa H, Kanto H, Matsunaga K (2019) Positive reactions to gold sodium thiosulfate in patch test panels (TRUE test) in Japan: a multicentre study. Contact Dermatitis 80:114–117

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  330. Björk AK, Bruze M, Engfeldt M, Nielsen C, Svedman C (2017) The reactivity of the back revisited. Are there differences in reactivity in different parts of the back? Contact Dermatitis 76:19–26

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  331. Ekqvist S, Svedman C, Lundh T, Möller H, Björk J, Bruze M (2008) A correlation found between gold concentration in blood and patch test reactions in patients with coronary stents. Contact Dermatitis 59:137–142

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  332. Ekqvist S, Lundh T, Svedman C, Björk J, Möller H, Nilsson LAF, Bruze M (2009) Does gold concentration in the blood influence the result of patch testing to gold? Br J Dermatol 160:1016–1021

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  333. Räsänen L, Kalimo K, Laine J, Vainio O, Kotiranta J, Pesola I (1996) Contact allergy to gold in dental patients. Br J Dermatol 134:673–677

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  334. Räsänen L, Kaipiainen-Seppänen O, Myllykangas-Luosujärvi R, Käsnänen T, Pollari P, Saloranta P, Horsmanheimo M (1999) Hypersensitivity to gold in gold sodium thiomalate-induced dermatosis. Br J Dermatol 141:683–688

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  335. Vamnes JS, Gjerdet NR, Morken T, Moe G, Matre R (1999) In vitro lymphocyte reactivity to gold compounds in the diagnosis of contact hypersensitivity. Contact Dermatitis 41:156–160

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  336. Rietschel RL, Warshaw EM, Sasseville D, Fowler JF, DeLeo VA, Belsito DV, Taylor JS, Storrs FJ, Mathias CGT, Maibach HI, Marks JG, Zug KA, Pratt M (2007) Common contact allergens associated with eyelid dermatitis: data from the North American Contact Dermatitis Group 2003–2004 study period. Dermat contact, atopic, Occup drug 18:78–81

    Google Scholar 

  337. Fowler JF, Taylor J, Storrs F, Sherertz E, Rietschel R, Pratt M, Mathias CG, Marks J, Maibach H, Fransway A, DeLeo V, Belsito D (2001) Gold allergy in North America. Am J Contact Dermat 12:3–5

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  338. McKenna KE, Dolan O, Walsh MY, Burrows D (1995) Contact allergy to gold sodium thiosulfate. Contact Dermatitis 32:143–146

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  339. Kobayashi Y, Nanko H, Nakamura J, Mizoguchi M (1992) Lymphocytoma cutis induced by gold pierced earrings. J Am Acad Dermatol 27:457–458

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  340. Armstrong DK, Walsh MY, Dawson JF (1997) Granulomatous contact dermatitis due to gold earrings. Br J Dermatol 136:776–778

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  341. Park YM, Kang H, Kim HO, Cho BK (1999) Lymphomatoid eosinophilic reaction to gold earrings. Contact Dermatitis 40:216–217

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  342. Moller H (2002) Dental gold alloys and contact allergy. Contact Dermatitis 47:63–66

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  343. Raap U, Stiesch M, Reh H, Kapp A, Werfel T (2009) Investigation of contact allergy to dental metals in 206 patients. Contact Dermatitis 60:339–343

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  344. Lazarov A, Kidron D, Tulchinsky Z, Minkow B (2003) Contact orofacial granulomatosis caused by delayed hypersensitivity to gold and mercury. J Am Acad Dermatol 49:1117–1120

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  345. Ahlgren C, Bruze M, Möller H, Gruvberger B, Axéll T, Liedholm R, Nilner K (2012) Contact allergy to gold in patients with oral lichen lesions. Acta Derm Venereol 92:138–143

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  346. Kroona L, Isaksson M, Ahlgren C, Dahlin J, Bruze M, Warfvinge G (2018) Carvone contact allergy in Southern Sweden: a 21-year retrospective study. Acta Derm Venereol 98:938–942

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  347. Poziomkowska-Gęsicka I, Summer B, Sokołowska M, Thomas P, Kurek M (2018) Allergic contact dermatitis caused by hypersensitivity to gold – description of a clinical case. Contact Dermatitis 78:363–365

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  348. Tous-Romero F, Andrés-Lencina JJ, Calleja-Algarra A, Ortiz-de Frutos FJ (2019) Allergic contact dermatitis to gold weight upper-eyelid implant. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 33:203–205

    Article  Google Scholar 

  349. Svedman C, Ekqvist S, Möller H, Björk J, Pripp C-M, Gruvberger B, Holmström E, Gustavsson C-G, Bruze M (2009) A correlation found between contact allergy to stent material and restenosis of the coronary arteries. Contact Dermatitis 60:158–164

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  350. Möller H, Björkner B, Bruze M (1996) Clinical reactions to systemic provocation with gold sodium thiomalate in patients with contact allergy to gold. Br J Dermatol 135:423–427

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  351. Möller H, Ohlsson K, Linder C, Björkner B, Bruze M (1998) Cytokines and acute phase reactants during flare-up of contact allergy to gold. Am J Contact Dermat 9:15–22

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  352. Möller H, Ohlsson K, Linder C, Björkner B, Bruze M (1999) The flare-up reactions after systemic provocation in contact allergy to nickel and gold. Contact Dermatitis 40:200–204

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  353. Malinauskiene L, Isaksson M, Bruze M (2013) Systemic contact dermatitis in a gold-allergic patient after treatment with an oral homeopathic drug. J Am Acad Dermatol 68:e58

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  354. Möller H, Björkner BBM (1996) Flare-up at contact allergy sites in a gold-treated rheumatic patient. Acta Derm Venereol 76:55–58

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  355. Russell MA, Langley M, Truett AP, King LE, Boyd AS (1997) Lichenoid dermatitis after consumption of gold-containing liquor. J Am Acad Dermatol 36:841–844

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  356. Malinauskiene L, Bruze M, Isaksson M (2017) Patch testing with the Swedish baseline series supplemented with a textile dye mix and gold in Vilnius, Lithuania and Malmö, Sweden. Contact Dermatitis 77:189–190

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  357. Paulsen E, Andersen F, Vestergaard L, Andersen KE (2019) Screening for gold sensitization in consecutive eczema patients: prevalence, relevance, and sources of exposure. Dermatitis 30:222–226

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  358. Gruvberger B, Bruze M, Almgren G (1998) Occupational dermatoses in a plant producing binders for paints and glues. Contact Dermatitis 38:71–77

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  359. Fleming C, Lucke T, Forsyth A, Rees S, Lever R, Wray D, Aldridge R, MacKie R (1998) A controlled study of gold contact hypersensitivity. Contact Dermatitis 38:137–139

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  360. Isaksson M, Zimerson E, Bruze M (1999) Occupational dermatoses in composite production. J Occup Environ Med 41:261–266

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  361. Fowler JF (2001) Gold. Am J Contact Dermat 12:1–2

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  362. Langan DC, Fan PL, Hoos AA (1987) The use of mercury in dentistry: a critical review of the recent literature. J Am Dent Assoc 115:867–880

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  363. Handley J, Todd D, Burrows D (1993) Mercury allergy in a contact dermatitis clinic in Northern Ireland. Contact Dermatitis 29:258–261

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  364. Ozkaya E, Mirzoyeva L, Otkür B (2009) Mercury-induced systemic allergic dermatitis caused by “white precipitate” in a skin lightening cream. Contact Dermatitis 60:61–63

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  365. Boyd AS, Seger D, Vannucci S, Langley M, Abraham JL, King LE (2000) Mercury exposure and cutaneous disease. J Am Acad Dermatol 43:81–90

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  366. Lerch M, Bircher AJ (2004) Systemically induced allergic exanthem from mercury. Contact Dermatitis 50:349–353

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  367. Munro-Ashman D, Munro DD, Hughes TH (1969) Contact dermatitis from palladium. Trans St Johns Hosp Dermatol Soc 55:196–197

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  368. Faurschou A, Menné T, Johansen J, Thyssen JP (2011) Metal allergen of the 21st century – a review on exposure, epidemiology and clinical manifestations of palladium allergy. Contact Dermatitis 64:185–195

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  369. Kanerva L, Kerosuo H, Kullaa A, Kerosuo E (1996) Allergic patch test reactions to palladium chloride in schoolchildren. Contact Dermatitis 34:39–42

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  370. Brasch J, Geier J (1997) Patch test results in schoolchildren. Results from the Information Network of Departments of Dermatology (IVDK) and the German Contact Dermatitis Research Group (DKG). Contact Dermatitis 37:286–293

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  371. Bordel-Gómez MT, Miranda-Romero a, Castrodeza-Sanz J (2008) Isolated and concurrent prevalence of sensitization to transition metals in a Spanish population. J Eur Acad Dermatology Venereol 22:1452–1457

    Article  Google Scholar 

  372. Muris J, Kleverlaan CJ, Feilzer AJ, Rustemeyer T (2008) Sodium tetrachloropalladate (Na2[PdCl4]) as an improved test salt for palladium allergy patch testing. Contact Dermatitis 58:42–46

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  373. Raap U, Stiesch M, Reh H, Kapp A, Werfel T (2009) Investigation of contact allergy to dental metals in 206 patients. Contact Dermatitis 60:339–343

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  374. Koch P, Baum H-P (1996) Contact stomatitis due to palladium and platinum in dental alloys. Contact Dermatitis 34:253–257

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  375. Goossens A, De Swerdt A, De Coninck K, Snauwaert JE, Dedeurwaerder M, De Bonte M (2006) Allergic contact granuloma due to palladium following ear piercing. Contact Dermatitis 55:338–341

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  376. Thyssen JP, Johansen JD, Jellesen MS, Menné T (2011) Provocation test with metallic palladium in a palladium-allergic patient. Contact Dermatitis 65:304–306

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  377. Tillman C, Engfeldt M, Hindsén M, Bruze M (2013) Usage test with palladium-coated earrings in patients with contact allergy to palladium and nickel. Contact Dermatitis 69:288–295

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  378. Todd DJ, Burrows D (1992) Patch testing with pure palladium metal in patients with sensitivity to palladium chloride. Contact Dermatitis 26:327–331

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  379. Uter W, Fuchs T, Häusser M, Ippen H (1995) Patch test results with serial dilutions of nickel sulfate (with and without detergent), palladium chloride, and nickel and palladium metal plates. Contact Dermatitis 32:135–142

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  380. Hindsén M, Spirén A, Bruze M (2005) Cross-reactivity between nickel and palladium demonstrated by systemic administration of nickel. Contact Dermatitis 53:2–8

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  381. Wahlberg JE, Boman AS (1992) Cross-reactivity to palladium and nickel studied in the guinea pig. Acta Derm Venereol 72:95–97

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  382. Wahlberg JE, Lidén C (1999) Cross-reactivity patterns of palladium and nickel studied by repeated open applications (ROATs) to the skin of guinea pigs. Contact Dermatitis 41:145–149

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  383. Baker DB, Gann PH, Brooks SM, Gallagher J, Bernstein IL (1990) Cross-sectional study of platinum salts sensitization among precious metals refinery workers. Am J Ind Med 18:653–664

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  384. Santucci B, Valenzano C, de Rocco M, Cristaudo A (2000) Platinum in the environment: frequency of reactions to platinum-group elements in patients with dermatitis and urticaria. Contact Dermatitis 43:333–338

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  385. Dastychová E, Semrádová V (2000) A case of contact hypersensitivity to platinum salts. Contact Dermatitis 43:226

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  386. Watsky KL (2007) Occupational allergic contact dermatitis to platinum, palladium, and gold. Contact Dermatitis 57:382–383

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  387. De La Cuadra J, Grau-Massanés M (1991) Occupational contact dermatitis from rhodium and cobalt. Contact Dermatitis 25:182–184

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  388. Nakayama H, Imai T (1982) Occupational contact urticaria, contact dermatitis and asthma caused by rhodium hypersensitivity. In: Proceedings of the 6th international symposium on contact dermatitis and joint meeting between ICDRG and JCDRG, Tokyo

    Google Scholar 

  389. Stingeni L, Brunelli L, Lisi P (2004) Contact sensitivity to rhodium and iridium in consecutively patch tested subjects. Contact Dermatitis 51:316–317

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  390. Lidén C, Maibach H, Wahlberg J (1995) Skin. In: Goyer RA, Klaassen CD, Waalkes MP (eds) Metal toxicology. Academic Press, New York, pp 447–464

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  391. Lansdown ABG (2006) Silver in health care: antimicrobial effects and safety in use. Curr Probl Dermatol 33:17–34

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  392. Drake PL, Hazelwood KJ (2005) Exposure-related health effects of silver and silver compounds: a review. Ann Occup Hyg 49:575–585

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  393. Iliev D, Elsner P (1998) Unusual edge effect in patch testing with silver nitrate. Am J Contact Dermat 9:57–59

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  394. García AA, Rodríguez Martín AM, Serra Baldrich E, Manubens Mercade E, Puig Sanz L (2016) Allergic contact dermatitis to silver in a patient treated with silver sulphadiazine after a burn. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 30:365–366

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  395. Nielsen NH, Skov L (1998) Occupational allergic contact dermatitis in a patient with a positive patch test to tin. Contact Dermatitis 39:99–100

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  396. Tous-Romero F, Velasco-Tamariz V, Prieto-Barrios M, Ortiz de Frutos J (2017) Active sensitization to cadmium, tin, and indium. Contact Dermatitis 77:332–333

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  397. Quenan S, Huber C, Pasche-Koo F, Piletta P (2014) Airborne allergic contact dermatitis caused by tin. Contact Dermatitis 71:184–185

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Dermatology and Allergy, National Allergy Research Centre, Herlev-Gentofte Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Hellerup, Denmark

    Jacob P. Thyssen & Malin G. Ahlström

  2. Department of Occupational and Environmental Dermatology, Malmö University Hospital, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden

    Magnus Bruze

  3. Department of Dermatology, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

    Thomas Rustemeyer

  4. Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden

    Carola Lidén

Authors
  1. Jacob P. Thyssen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Malin G. Ahlström
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Magnus Bruze
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Thomas Rustemeyer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Carola Lidén
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Malin G. Ahlström .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Amtssygehuset Gentofte Dept. Dermatology, Hellerup, Denmark

    Jeanne Duus Johansen

  2. Federal Institute for Vaccines & Biomed, Paul Ehrlich Institut Federal Institute for Vaccines & Biomed, Langen, Bayern, Germany

    Vera Mahler

  3. Institut le Bel Labo. Dermatochimie, Strasbourg CX, France

    Jean-Pierre Lepoittevin

  4. Hautklinik, Städtische Kliniken Dortmund Klinikzentrum Mitte, Dortmund, Germany

    Peter J. Frosch

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Thyssen, J.P., Ahlström, M.G., Bruze, M., Rustemeyer, T., Lidén, C. (2020). Contact Allergy to Metals. In: Johansen, J., Mahler, V., Lepoittevin, JP., Frosch, P. (eds) Contact Dermatitis. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72451-5_35-2

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72451-5_35-2

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-72451-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-72451-5

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference MedicineReference Module Medicine

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Chapter history

  1. Latest

    Contact Allergy to Metals
    Published:
    10 June 2020

    DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72451-5_35-2

  2. Original

    Metals
    Published:
    25 February 2020

    DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72451-5_35-1

Search

Navigation