Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Unique Aspects of Surgical Critical Care for Children

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Surgical Critical Care Therapy

  • 2170 Accesses

Abstract

While there is considerable overlap between the care of adult surgical critical care patients and pediatric surgical patients in the ICU, there are unique aspects of pediatric care that warrant additional consideration. Differences in pediatric anatomy, physiology, and the impact of these differences between children and adults are highlighted in this chapter using a systems-based approach.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 109.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Silverman AM, Wang VJ. Shock: a common pathway for life-threatening pediatric illnesses and injuries. Pediatr Emerg Med Pract. 2005;2:1–22.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Quareshi F, Blanco FC. Renal physiology, acute renal failure and renal replacement therapy in children. Handbook of pediatric surgical critical care. Arca MJ, editor. 1st ed. 2013. https://www.eapsa.org/apsa/media/Documents/APSAHandbookofSurgicalCriticalCare_Jun52014.pdf.

  3. Association AH. Pediatric advanced life support (PALS) digital reference card. 2016. https://www.acls.net/pals-algorithms.htm.

  4. Sunder RA, Haile DT, Farrell PT, Sharma A. Pediatric airway management: current practices and future directions. Paediatr Anaesth. 2012;22:1008–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Arca MJ. The pediatric airway. Handbook of pediatric surgical critical care. Arca M, editor. 1st ed. 2013. https://www.eapsa.org/apsa/media/Documents/APSAHandbookofSurgicalCriticalCare_Jun52014.pdf.

  6. Fiadjoe J, Stricker P. Pediatric difficult airway management: current devices and techniques. Anesthesiol Clin. 2009;27:185–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Lau N, Playfor SD, Rashid A, Dhanarass M. New formulae for predicting tracheal tube length. Paediatr Anaesth. 2006;16:1238–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Group ALS. Advanced paediatric life support:the practical approach. 5th ed. London: BMJ Books; 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Sims C, Ungern-Sternberg v. BS: the normal and the challenging pediatric airway. Paediatr Anaesth. 2012;22:521–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Arshad A, McCarthy MJ. Management of limb ischaemia in the neonate and infant. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2009;38:61–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Jensen A, Bliss D. Monitoring in the ICU. Handbook of pediatric surgical critical care. Arca MJ, editor. 1st ed. 2013. https://www.eapsa.org/apsa/media/Documents/APSAHandbookofSurgicalCriticalCare_Jun52014.pdf.

  12. Kim JH, Lee YS, Kim SH, Lee SK, Lim MK, Kim HS. Does umbilical vein catheterization lead to portal venous thrombosis? Prospective US evaluation in 100 neonates. Radiology. 2001;219:645–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Coleman MM, Spear ML, Finkelstein M, Leef KH, Pearlman SA, Chien C, Taylor SM, McKenzie SE. Short-term use of umbilical artery catheters may not be associated with increased risk for thrombosis. Pediatrics. 2004;113:770–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Veldman A, Nold MF, Michel-Behnke I. Thrombosis in the critically ill neonate: incidence, diagnosis, and management. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2008;4:1337–48.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  15. Nowak-Göttl U, von Kries R, Göbel U. Neonatal symptomatic thromboembolism in Germany: two year survey. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 1997;76:F163–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  16. Surgeons ACo. ATLS student course manual: advanced trauma life support. 9th ed. American College of Surgeons; 2012. Chicago, IL

    Google Scholar 

  17. Bright futures: guidelines for health supervision of infants, children, and adolescents. 3rd ed. Elk Grove: The American Academy of Pediatrics, 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Harris J, Ramelet AS, van Dijk M, Pokorna P, Wielenga J, Tume L, Tibboel D, Ista E. Clinical recommendations for pain, sedation, withdrawal and delirium assessment in critically ill infants and children: an ESPNIC position statement for healthcare professionals. Intensive Care Med. 2016;42:972–86.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Franck LS, Harris SK, Soetenga DJ, Amling JK, Curley MA. The withdrawal assessment tool-1 (WAT-1): an assessment instrument for monitoring opioid and benzodiazepine withdrawal symptoms in pediatric patients. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2008;9:573–80.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. Merkel SI, Voepel-Lewis T, Shayevitz JR, Malviya S. The FLACC: a behavioral scale for scoring postoperative pain in young children. Pediatr Nurs. 1997;23:293–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Ista E, van Dijk M, Tibboel D, de Hoog M. Assessment of sedation levels in pediatric intensive care patients can be improved by using the COMFORT "behavior" scale. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2005;6:58–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. van Dijk M, Peters JW, van Deventer P, Tibboel D. The COMFORT behavior scale: a tool for assessing pain and sedation in infants. Am J Nurs. 2005;105:33–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Silver G, Traube C, Kearney J, Kelly D, Yoon MJ, Nash Moyal W, Gangopadhyay M, Shao H, Ward MJ. Detecting pediatric delirium: development of a rapid observational assessment tool. Intensive Care Med. 2012;38:1025–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Smith HA, Fuchs DC, Pandharipande PP, Barr FE, Ely EW. Delirium: an emerging frontier in the management of critically ill children. Anesthesiol Clin. 2011;29:729–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Alievi PT, Carvalho PR, Trotta EA, Mombelli Filho R. The impact of admission to a pediatric intensive care unit assessed by means of global and cognitive performance scales. J Pediatr. 2007;83:505–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Fiser DH, Long N, Roberson PK, Hefley G, Zolten K, Brodie-Fowler M. Relationship of pediatric overall performance category and pediatric cerebral performance category scores at pediatric intensive care unit discharge with outcome measures collected at hospital discharge and 1- and 6-month follow-up assessments. Crit Care Med. 2000;28:2616–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Horswell BB, Jaskolka MS. Pediatric head injuries. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am. 2012;24:337–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Tieves K. In: Holcomb III GW, Murphy JP, editors. Pediatric head trauma. Ashcraft's pediatric surgery. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders Elsevier; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Easter JS, Bakes K, Dhaliwal J, Miller M, Caruso E, Haukoos JS. Comparison of PECARN, CATCH, and CHALICE rules for children with minor head injury: a prospective cohort study. Ann Emerg Med. 2014;64:145–52. 52.e1–5.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Kuppermann N, Holmes JF, Dayan PS, Hoyle JD, Atabaki SM, Holubkov R, Nadel FM, Monroe D, Stanley RM, Borgialli DA, Badawy MK, Schunk JE, Quayle KS, Mahajan P, Lichenstein R, Lillis KA, Tunik MG, Jacobs ES, Callahan JM, Gorelick MH, Glass TF, Lee LK, Bachman MC, Cooper A, Powell EC, Gerardi MJ, Melville KA, Muizelaar JP, Wisner DH, Zuspan SJ, Dean JM, Wootton-Gorges SL. (PECARN) PECARN: identification of children at very low risk of clinically-important brain injuries after head trauma: a prospective cohort study. Lancet. 2009;374:1160–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. da Silva PS, Reis ME, Aguiar VE. Value of repeat cranial computed tomography in pediatric patients sustaining moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. J Trauma. 2008;65:1293–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Bata SC, Yung M. Role of routine repeat head imaging in paediatric traumatic brain injury. ANZ J Surg. 2014;84:438–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Howe J, Fitzpatrick CM, Lakam DR, Gleisner A, Vane DW. Routine repeat brain computed tomography in all children with mild traumatic brain injury may result in unnecessary radiation exposure. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2014;76:292–5. discussion 5-6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Farach SM, Danielson PD, Amankwah EK, Chandler NM. Repeat computed tomography scans after pediatric trauma: results of an institutional effort to minimize radiation exposure. Pediatr Surg Int. 2015;31:1027–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Gasior A, Juang D. Pediatric neurotrauma. Handbook of pediatric surgical critical care. Arca MJ, editor. 1st ed. 2013. https://www.eapsa.org/apsa/media/Documents/APSAHandbookofSurgicalCriticalCare_Jun52014.pdf.

  36. Addioui A, Saint-Vil D, Crevier L, Beaudin M. Management of skull fractures in children less than 1 year of age. J Pediatr Surg. 2016;51:1146–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Powell EC, Atabaki SM, Wootton-Gorges S, Wisner D, Mahajan P, Glass T, Miskin M, Stanley RM, Jacobs E, Dayan PS, Holmes JF, Kuppermann N. Isolated linear skull fractures in children with blunt head trauma. Pediatrics. 2015;135:e851–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Malhotra A, Wu X, Kalra VB, Goodman TR, Schindler J, Forman HP. Screening for pediatric blunt cerebrovascular injury: review of literature and a cost-effectiveness analysis. J Pediatr Surg. 2015;50:1751–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Kochanek PM, Carney N, Adelson PD, Ashwal S, Bell MJ, Bratton S, Carson S, Chesnut RM, Ghajar J, Goldstein B, Grant GA, Kissoon N, Peterson K, Selden NR, Tasker RC, Tong KA, Vavilala MS, Wainwright MS, Warden CR, Surgery AAoP-SoN, Surgeons AAoNSCoN, Society CN, Care ESoPaNI, Society NC, Group PNCR, Medicine SoCC, UK PICS, Care SfNiAaC, Societies WFoPIaCC. Guidelines for the acute medical management of severe traumatic brain injury in infants, children, and adolescents--second edition. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2012;13(Suppl 1):S1–82.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Foundation BT. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury. 4th ed. 2016. Neurosurg. 2017;80:6–15.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Chesnut RM, Temkin N, Carney N, Dikmen S, Rondina C, Videtta W, Petroni G, Lujan S, Pridgeon J, Barber J, Machamer J, Chaddock K, Celix JM, Cherner M, Hendrix T, Group GNR. A trial of intracranial-pressure monitoring in traumatic brain injury. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:2471–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. Tanaka T, Litofsky NS. Anti-epileptic drugs in pediatric traumatic brain injury. Expert Rev Neurother. 2016;16:1229–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Liesemer K, Bratton SL, Zebrack CM, Brockmeyer D, Statler KD. Early post-traumatic seizures in moderate to severe pediatric traumatic brain injury: rates, risk factors, and clinical features. J Neurotrauma. 2011;28:755–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Young B, Rapp RP, Norton JA, Haack D, Walsh JW. Failure of prophylactically administered phenytoin to prevent post-traumatic seizures in children. Childs Brain. 1983;10:185–92.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Pearl PL, McCarter R, McGavin CL, Yu Y, Sandoval F, Trzcinski S, Atabaki SM, Tsuchida T, van den Anker J, He J, Klein P. Results of phase II levetiracetam trial following acute head injury in children at risk for posttraumatic epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2013;54:e135–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. Lewis RJ, Yee L, Inkelis SH, Gilmore D. Clinical predictors of post-traumatic seizures in children with head trauma. Ann Emerg Med. 1993;22:1114–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Freeman JM. Febrile seizures: a consensus of their significance, evaluation, and treatment. Pediatrics. 1980;66:1009.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Gupta A. Febrile Seizures. Continuum (Minneap Minn). 2016;22:51–9.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Epstein LG, Shinnar S, Hesdorffer DC, Nordli DR, Hamidullah A, Benn EK, Pellock JM, Frank LM, Lewis DV, Moshe SL, Shinnar RC, Sun S, team Fs. Human herpesvirus 6 and 7 in febrile status epilepticus: the FEBSTAT study. Epilepsia. 2012;53:1481–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Steering Committee on Quality Improvement and Management SboFSAAoP. Febrile seizures: clinical practice guideline for the long-term management of the child with simple febrile seizures. Pediatrics. 2008;121:1281–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Seizures SoF, Pediatrics AAo. Neurodiagnostic evaluation of the child with a simple febrile seizure. Pediatrics. 2011;127:389–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Oluwabusi T, Sood SK. Update on the management of simple febrile seizures: emphasis on minimal intervention. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2012;24:259–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Freilich ER, Schreiber JM, Zelleke T, Gaillard WD. Pediatric status epilepticus: identification and evaluation. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2014;26:655–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Bober J, Rochlin J, Marneni S. Ventriculoperitoneal shunt complications in children: an evidence-based approach to emergency department management. Pediatr Emerg Med Pract. 2016;13:1–22. quiz −3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Fraser JD, Aguayo P, Sharp SW, Holcomb IIIGW, Ostlie DJ, St Peter SD. The safety of laparoscopy in pediatric patients with ventriculoperitoneal shunts. J Laparoendosc Adv Surg Tech A. 2009;19:675–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Bui CJ, Tubbs RS, Pate G, Morgan T, Barnhart DC, Acakpo-Satchivi L, Wellons JC, Oakes WJ, Blount JP. Infections of pediatric cerebrospinal fluid shunts related to fundoplication and gastrostomy. J Neurosurg. 2007;107:365–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Gassas A, Kennedy J, Green G, Connolly B, Cohen J, Dag-Ellams U, Kulkarni A, Bouffet E. Risk of ventriculoperitoneal shunt infections due to gastrostomy feeding tube insertion in pediatric patients with brain tumors. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2006;42:95–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Dellinger RP, Levy MM, Rhodes A, Annane D, Gerlach H, Opal SM, Sevransky JE, Sprung CL, Douglas IS, Jaeschke R, Osborn TM, Nunnally ME, Townsend SR, Reinhart K, Kleinpell RM, Angus DC, Deutschman CS, Machado FR, Rubenfeld GD, Webb S, Beale RJ, Vincent JL, Moreno R, Subgroup SSCGCiTP. Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock, 2012. Intensive Care Med. 2013;39:165–228.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  59. Brierley J, Carcillo JA, Choong K, Cornell T, Decaen A, Deymann A, Doctor A, Davis A, Duff J, Dugas MA, Duncan A, Evans B, Feldman J, Felmet K, Fisher G, Frankel L, Jeffries H, Greenwald B, Gutierrez J, Hall M, Han YY, Hanson J, Hazelzet J, Hernan L, Kiff J, Kissoon N, Kon A, Irazuzta J, Irazusta J, Lin J, Lorts A, Mariscalco M, Mehta R, Nadel S, Nguyen T, Nicholson C, Peters M, Okhuysen-Cawley R, Poulton T, Relves M, Rodriguez A, Rozenfeld R, Schnitzler E, Shanley T, Kache S, Skache S, Skippen P, Torres A, von Dessauer B, Weingarten J, Yeh T, Zaritsky A, Stojadinovic B, Zimmerman J, Zuckerberg A. Clinical practice parameters for hemodynamic support of pediatric and neonatal septic shock: 2007 update from the American College of Critical Care Medicine. Crit Care Med. 2009;37:666–88.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  60. Myburgh J, Cooper DJ, Finfer S, Bellomo R, Norton R, Bishop N, Kai Lo S, Vallance S, Investigators SS, Group AaNZICSCT, Service ARCB, Health GIfI. Saline or albumin for fluid resuscitation in patients with traumatic brain injury. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:874–84.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Puligandla PS. Shock, low cardiac output, and inotropic support. Handbook of pediatric surgical critical care. Arca MJ, editor. 1st ed. 2013. https://www.eapsa.org/apsa/media/Documents/APSAHandbookofSurgicalCriticalCare_Jun52014.pdf.

  62. Cassel-Choudhury GN, Aydin SI, Toedt-Pingel I, Ushay HM, Killinger JS, Cohen HW, Ceresnak SR. Arrhythmias in the paediatric intensive care unit: a prospective study of the rates and predictors of arrhythmias in children without underlying cardiac disease. Cardiol Young. 2015;25:1281–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Moffett BS, Salvin JW, Kim JJ. Pediatric cardiac intensive care society 2014 consensus statement: pharmacotherapies in cardiac critical care Antiarrhythmics. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2016;17:S49–58.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Hansen JH, Petko C, Bauer G, Voges I, Kramer HH, Scheewe J. Fifteen-year single-center experience with the Norwood operation for complex lesions with single-ventricle physiology compared with hypoplastic left heart syndrome. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2012;144:166–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Green DM, Grigoriev YA, Nan B, Takashima JR, Norkool PA, D'Angio GJ, Breslow NE. Congestive heart failure after treatment for Wilms' tumor: a report from the National Wilms' Tumor Study group. J Clin Oncol. 2001;19:1926–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Huh WW, Jaffe N, Durand JB, Munsell MF, Herzog CE. Comparison of doxorubicin cardiotoxicity in pediatric sarcoma patients when given with dexrazoxane versus as continuous infusion. Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2010;27:546–57.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Agarwala S, Kumar R, Bhatnagar V, Bajpai M, Gupta DK, Mitra DK. High incidence of adriamycin cardiotoxicity in children even at low cumulative doses: role of radionuclide cardiac angiography. J Pediatr Surg. 2000;35:1786–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Goldberg JM, Scully RE, Sallan SE, Lipshultz SE. Cardiac failure 30 years after treatment containing anthracycline for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2012;34:395–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  69. Kremer LC, van Dalen EC, Offringa M, Voûte PA. Frequency and risk factors of anthracycline-induced clinical heart failure in children: a systematic review. Ann Oncol. 2002;13:503–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Goorin AM, Chauvenet AR, Perez-Atayde AR, Cruz J, McKone R, Lipshultz SE. Initial congestive heart failure, six to ten years after doxorubicin chemotherapy for childhood cancer. J Pediatr. 1990;116:144–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Henderson IC, Sloss LJ, Jaffe N, Blum RH, Frei E. Serial studies of cardiac function in patients receiving adriamycin. Cancer Treat Rep. 1978;62:923–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Medhora M, Gao F, Glisch C, Narayanan J, Sharma A, Harmann LM, Lawlor MW, Snyder LA, Fish BL, Down JD, Moulder JE, Strande JL, Jacobs ER. Whole-thorax irradiation induces hypoxic respiratory failure, pleural effusions and cardiac remodeling. J Radiat Res. 2015;56:248–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Chen C, Heusch A, Donner B, Janssen G, Göbel U, Schmidt KG. Present risk of anthracycline or radiation-induced cardiac sequelae following therapy of malignancies in children and adolescents. Klin Padiatr. 2009;221:162–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Burrows FA, Hickey PR, Colan S. Perioperative complications in patients with anthracycline chemotherapeutic agents. Can Anaesth Soc J. 1985;32:149–57.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Jonsson T, Mortensen SA, Aabo K. Acute cardiac failure precipitated by anesthesia and surgery in patients treated with adriamycin. Ugeskr Laeger. 1984;146:3837–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Gadepalli S, Ruzic A, Hirschl RB. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation/extracorporeal lung support. Handbook of pediatric surgical critical care. Arca MJ, editor. 1st ed. 2013. https://www.eapsa.org/apsa/media/Documents/APSAHandbookofSurgicalCriticalCare_Jun52014.pdf.

  77. Thiagarajan RR, Barbaro RP, Rycus PT, Mcmullan DM, Conrad SA, Fortenberry JD, Paden ML, centers Em. Extracorporeal life support organization registry international report 2016. ASAIO J. 2017;63:60–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Wenger RK, Bavaria JE, Ratcliffe MB, Bogen D, Edmunds LH. Flow dynamics of peripheral venous catheters during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation with a centrifugal pump. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1988;96:478–84.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Hirschl RB, Bartlett RB. In: Coran AG, editor. Extracorporeal life support for cardiopulmonary failure. Pediatric surgery. 7th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Rajagopal H, Karnik R, Sahulee R. Pediatric pulmonary hypertension. Pediatr Rev. 2016;37:129–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Abman SH, Hansmann G, Archer SL, Ivy DD, Adatia I, Chung WK, Hanna BD, Rosenzweig EB, Raj JU, Cornfield D, Stenmark KR, Steinhorn R, Thébaud B, Fineman JR, Kuehne T, Feinstein JA, Friedberg MK, Earing M, Barst RJ, Keller RL, Kinsella JP, Mullen M, Deterding R, Kulik T, Mallory G, Humpl T, Wessel DL, American Heart Association Council on Cardiopulmonary ACC, Perioperative and Resuscitation, Cardiology CoC, Young CoCDit, Intervention CoCRa, Anesthesia CoCSa, Society atAT. Pediatric pulmonary hypertension: guidelines from the American Heart Association and American Thoracic Society. Circulation. 2015;132:2037–99.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Wakeham M, Arca MJ. Mechanical ventilation. Handbook of pediatric surgical critical care. Arca MJ, editor. 1st ed. 2013. https://www.eapsa.org/apsa/media/Documents/APSAHandbookofSurgicalCriticalCare_Jun52014.pdf.

  83. Liedel J, Das U. Ventilation in the NICU. Handbook of pediatric surgical critical care. Arca MJ, editor. 1st ed. 2013. https://www.eapsa.org/apsa/media/Documents/APSAHandbookofSurgicalCriticalCare_Jun52014.pdf.

  84. Greer SE, McCunn M. High-frequency oscillatory ventilation. Curr Probl Surg. 2013;50:471–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Ethawi YH, Abou Mehrem A, Minski J, Ruth CA, Davis PG. High frequency jet ventilation versus high frequency oscillatory ventilation for pulmonary dysfunction in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;CD010548.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Rowan CM, Cristea O, Greathouse ST, Coleman JJ, Nitu ME. Preemptive use of high-frequency oscillatory ventilation in pediatric burn patients. J Burn Care Res. 2013;34:237–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Cortiella J, Mlcak R, Herndon D. High frequency percussive ventilation in pediatric patients with inhalation injury. J Burn Care Rehabil. 1999;20:232–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Schweiger C, Marostica PJ, Smith MM, Manica D, Carvalho PR, Kuhl G. Incidence of post-intubation subglottic stenosis in children: prospective study. J Laryngol Otol. 2013;127:399–403.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Manica D, Schweiger C, Maróstica PJ, Kuhl G, Carvalho PR. Association between length of intubation and subglottic stenosis in children. Laryngoscope. 2013;123:1049–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Choi SS, Zalzal GH. Changing trends in neonatal subglottic stenosis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2000;122:61–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Overman AE, Liu M, Kurachek SC, Shreve MR, Maynard RC, Mammel MC, Moore BM. Tracheostomy for infants requiring prolonged mechanical ventilation: 10 years' experience. Pediatrics. 2013;131:e1491–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Ogilvie LN, Kozak JK, Chiu S, Adderley RJ, Kozak FK. Changes in pediatric tracheostomy 1982-2011: a Canadian tertiary children's hospital review. J Pediatr Surg. 2014;49:1549–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Simma B, Spehler D, Burger R, Uehlinger J, Ghelfi D, Dangel P, Hof E, Fanconi S. Tracheostomy in children. Eur J Pediatr. 1994;153:291–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Fraga JC, Souza JC, Kruel J. Pediatric tracheostomy. J Pediatr. 2009;85:97–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  95. Al-Samri M, Mitchell I, Drummond DS, Bjornson C. Tracheostomy in children: a population-based experience over 17 years. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2010;45:487–93.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Martinez EE, Mehta NM. The science and art of pediatric critical care nutrition. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2016;22:316–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Kenney B, Arca MJ. Fluid, electrolytes, and nutrition. Handbook of pediatric surgical critical care. Arca MJ, editor. 1st ed. 2013. https://www.eapsa.org/apsa/media/Documents/APSAHandbookofSurgicalCriticalCare_Jun52014.pdf.

  98. Fivez T, Kerklaan D, Mesotten D, Verbruggen S, Wouters PJ, Vanhorebeek I, Debaveye Y, Vlasselaers D, Desmet L, Casaer MP, Garcia Guerra G, Hanot J, Joffe A, Tibboel D, Joosten K, Van den Berghe G. Early versus late parenteral nutrition in critically ill children. N Engl J Med. 2016;374:1111–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Teitelbaum DH, Btaiche IF, Coran AG. In: Coran A, Adzick NS, Krummel TM, Laberge JM, Caldamone A, Shamberger R, editors. Nutritional support in the pediatric surgical patient. Pediatric surgery. 7th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  100. Araujo TE, Vieira SM, Carvalho PR. Stress ulcer prophylaxis in pediatric intensive care units. J Pediatr. 2010;86:525–30.

    Google Scholar 

  101. Reveiz L, Guerrero-Lozano R, Camacho A, Yara L, Mosquera PA. Stress ulcer, gastritis, and gastrointestinal bleeding prophylaxis in critically ill pediatric patients: a systematic review. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2010;11:124–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. López-Herce J, Dorao P, Elola P, Delgado MA, Ruza F, Madero R. Frequency and prophylaxis of upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage in critically ill children: a prospective study comparing the efficacy of almagate, ranitidine, and sucralfate. The Gastrointestinal Hemorrhage Study Group. Crit Care Med. 1992;20:1082–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Nithiwathanapong C, Reungrongrat S, Ukarapol N. Prevalence and risk factors of stress-induced gastrointestinal bleeding in critically ill children. World J Gastroenterol. 2005;11:6839–42.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  104. Costarino AT, Dai D, Feng R, Feudtner C, Guevara JP. Gastric acid suppressant prophylaxis in pediatric intensive care: current practice as reflected in a large administrative database. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2015;16:605–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Sahin S, Ayar G, Yazici MU, Koksal T, Akman AO, Gunduz RC, Kirsacoglu CT, Gulerman F. Stress induced gastrointestinal bleeding in a pediatric intensive care unit: which risk factors should necessitate prophilaxis? Minerva Pediatr. 2016;68:19–26.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Terrin G, Passariello A, De Curtis M, Manguso F, Salvia G, Lega L, Messina F, Paludetto R, Canani RB. Ranitidine is associated with infections, necrotizing enterocolitis, and fatal outcome in newborns. Pediatrics. 2012;129:e40–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Lightdale JR, Gremse DA, Section on Gastroenterology Hp, and Nutrition. Gastroesophageal reflux: management guidance for the pediatrician. Pediatrics. 2013;131:e1684–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Mohinuddin S, Sakhuja P, Bermundo B, Ratnavel N, Kempley S, Ward HC, Sinha A. Outcomes of full-term infants with bilious vomiting: observational study of a retrieved cohort. Arch Dis Child. 2015;100:14–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Rönnholm KA, Holmberg C. Peritoneal dialysis in infants. Pediatr Nephrol. 2006;21:751–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Zaritsky J, Warady BA. Peritoneal dialysis in infants and young children. Semin Nephrol. 2011;31:213–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Kaiser BA, Polinsky MS, Stover J, Morgenstern BZ, Baluarte HJ. Growth of children following the initiation of dialysis: a comparison of three dialysis modalities. Pediatr Nephrol. 1994;8:733–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Stewart CL, Acker SN, Pyle LL, Kulungowski A, Cadnapaphornchai M, Bruny JL, Karrer F. Factors associated with peritoneal dialysis catheter complications in children. J Pediatr Surg. 2016;51:159–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Fraser N, Hussain FK, Connell R, Shenoy MU. Chronic peritoneal dialysis in children. Int J Nephrol Renovasc Dis. 2015;8:125–37.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  114. Goldstein SL. Advances in pediatric renal replacement therapy for acute kidney injury. Semin Dial. 2011;24:187–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Bock KR. Renal replacement therapy in pediatric critical care medicine. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2005;17:368–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Lacroix J, Hébert PC, Hutchison JS, Hume HA, Tucci M, Ducruet T, Gauvin F, Collet JP, Toledano BJ, Robillard P, Joffe A, Biarent D, Meert K, Peters MJ, Investigators T, Group CCCT, Network PALIaSI. Transfusion strategies for patients in pediatric intensive care units. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:1609–19.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Ricca RL, Arca MJ. Transfusion and anticoagulation. Handbook of pediatric surgical critical care. Arca MJ, editor. 1st ed. 2013. p. 214–31. https://www.eapsa.org/apsa/media/Documents/APSAHandbookofSurgicalCriticalCare_Jun52014.pdf.

  118. Quinn K, Quinn M, Moreno C, Soundar E, Teruya J, Hui SK. Neonatal transfusion models to determine the impact of using fresh red blood cells on inventory and exposure. Blood Transfus. 2015;13:595–9.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  119. Andrew M, David M, Adams M, Ali K, Anderson R, Barnard D, Bernstein M, Brisson L, Cairney B, DeSai D. Venous thromboembolic complications (VTE) in children: first analyses of the Canadian Registry of VTE. Blood. 1994;83:1251–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Raffini L, Huang YS, Witmer C, Feudtner C. Dramatic increase in venous thromboembolism in children's hospitals in the United States from 2001 to 2007. Pediatrics. 2009;124:1001–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Monagle P. Diagnosis and management of deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in neonates and children. Semin Thromb Hemost. 2012;38:683–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Connelly CR, Laird A, Barton JS, Fischer PE, Krishnaswami S, Schreiber MA, Zonies DH, Watters JM. A clinical tool for the prediction of venous thromboembolism in pediatric trauma patients. JAMA Surg. 2016;151:50–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Thompson AJ, McSwain SD, Webb SA, Stroud MA, Streck CJ. Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in the pediatric trauma population. J Pediatr Surg. 2013;48:1413–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Leeper CM, Vissa M, Cooper JD, Malec LM, Gaines BA. Venous thromboembolism in pediatric trauma patients: ten-year experience and long-term follow-up in a tertiary care center. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2017. Pediatr. Blood Cancer. 2017;64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  125. Monagle P, Chan AK, Goldenberg NA, Ichord RN, Journeycake JM, Nowak-Göttl U, Vesely SK, Physicians ACoC. Antithrombotic therapy in neonates and children: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest. 2012;141:e737S–801S.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  126. Acharya SS. Rare bleeding disorders in children: identification and primary care management. Pediatrics. 2013;132:882–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Singer M, Deutschman CS, Seymour CW, Shankar-Hari M, Annane D, Bauer M, Bellomo R, Bernard GR, Chiche JD, Coopersmith CM, Hotchkiss RS, Levy MM, Marshall JC, Martin GS, Opal SM, Rubenfeld GD, van der Poll T, Vincent JL, Angus DC. The third international consensus definitions for sepsis and septic shock (Sepsis-3). JAMA. 2016;315:801–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  128. Ruzic A, Gadepalli S, Hirschl R. Sepsis. Handbook of pediatric surgical critical care. Arca MJ, editor. 1st ed. 2013. https://www.eapsa.org/apsa/media/Documents/APSAHandbookofSurgicalCriticalCare_Jun52014.pdf.

  129. Cortese F, Scicchitano P, Gesualdo M, Filaninno A, De Giorgi E, Schettini F, Laforgia N, Ciccone MM. Early and late infections in newborns: where do we stand? A review. Pediatr Neonatol. 2015. Pediatr. Neonatol. 2016;57:265–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  130. Sur DK, Bukont EL. Evaluating fever of unidentifiable source in young children. Am Fam Physician. 2007;75:1805–11.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Sherman JM, Sood SK. Current challenges in the diagnosis and management of fever. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2012;24:400–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention NCfIPaC: 10 Leading Causes of Death by Age Group, United States - 2011. http://www.cdc.gov/injury/wisqars/pdf/leading_causes_of_death_by_age_group_2011-a.pdf.

  133. Association AH. Pediatric advanced life support (PALS) provider manual. 12th ed. Dallas: American Heart Association; 2016.

    Google Scholar 

  134. Leventhal JM, Martin KD, Gaither JR. Using US data to estimate the incidence of serious physical abuse in children. Pediatrics. 2012;129:458–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Lane WG, Lotwin I, Dubowitz H, Langenberg P, Dischinger P. Outcomes for children hospitalized with abusive versus noninflicted abdominal trauma. Pediatrics. 2011;127:e1400–5.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  136. Paul AR, Adamo MA. Non-accidental trauma in pediatric patients: a review of epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment. Transl Pediatr. 2014;3:195–207.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  137. Horowitz L, Kassam-Adams N, Bergstein J. Mental health aspects of emergency medical services for children: summary of a consensus conference. Acad Emerg Med. 2001;8:1187–96.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Balluffi A, Kassam-Adams N, Kazak A, Tucker M, Dominguez T, Helfaer M. Traumatic stress in parents of children admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2004;5:547–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Muscara F, Burke K, McCarthy MC, Anderson VA, Hearps SJ, Dimovski A, Nicholson JM. Parent distress reactions following a serious illness or injury in their child: a protocol paper for the take a Breath Cohort Study. BMC Psychiatry. 2015;15:153.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  140. Davidson JE, Aslakson RA, Long AC, Puntillo KA, Kross EK, Hart J, Cox CE, Wunsch H, Wickline MA, Nunnally ME, Netzer G, Kentish-Barnes N, Sprung CL, Hartog CS, Coombs M, Gerritsen RT, Hopkins RO, Franck LS, Skrobik Y, Kon AA, Scruth EA, Harvey MA, Lewis-Newby M, White DB, Swoboda SM, Cooke CR, Levy MM, Azoulay E, Curtis JR. Guidelines for family-centered care in the neonatal, pediatric, and adult ICU. Crit Care Med. 2017;45:103–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Surgery, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Division of Pediatric Surgery, Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA

    Jamie Golden, Aaron R. Jensen, David W. Bliss & Jeffrey S. Upperman

Authors
  1. Jamie Golden
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Aaron R. Jensen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. David W. Bliss
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Jeffrey S. Upperman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jeffrey S. Upperman .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Brigham and Womens’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

    Ali Salim

  2. Dell Medical School, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, USA

    Carlos Brown

  3. Division of Trauma Surgery, Rm C5L100, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA

    Kenji Inaba

  4. Trauma and Emergency Surgery Service, Legacy Emanuel Medical Center, Portland, Oregon, USA

    Matthew J. Martin

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Golden, J., Jensen, A.R., Bliss, D.W., Upperman, J.S. (2018). Unique Aspects of Surgical Critical Care for Children. In: Salim, A., Brown, C., Inaba, K., Martin, M. (eds) Surgical Critical Care Therapy . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71712-8_57

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71712-8_57

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-71711-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-71712-8

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation