Abstract
Sylvia R. Frey and Betty Wood attribute the success of the evangelical revival among African diasporic peoples in the American south and the West Indies by 1830 to a creolization of forms of worship and the way “evangelical institutions came to constitute important loci wherein African peoples could develop a sense of belonging and assert a cultural presence in the larger society through the creation of their own moral and social communities” (Sylvia R. Frey and Betty Wood, Come Shouting to Zion: African American Protestantism in the American South and British Caribbean to 1830. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 118, 1998). The relating of life narrative in various genres, written and oral, was crucial to the formation of these communities, especially among Methodists and Moravians. West Indian evangelical life narratives circulated within particular local colonial communities, largely in oral form; in written form they reached beyond the Caribbean to different witnessing and affective audiences.
In this essay I read a range of early West Indian life narratives contrapuntally with exemplary texts of the evangelical civilizing mission in the West Indies of the plantation slavery period: the Methodist Thomas Coke’s A History of the West Indies, Containing the Natural, Civil and Ecclesiastical History of Each Island (1808–11) and a range of written and visual material by Moravian missionary Lewis Stobwasser from the 1810s and 1820s. The early West Indian life narratives offer evidence of the historical soundscapes of plantation slavery cultures and complex processes of creolization and translation in the inscription of lives, including translation of African diasporic oracy and African Caribbean cosmology to the page. The essay highlights the literary and historical significance of a genre of West Indian writing usually overlooked in accounts of the early Caribbean, draws renewed historical attention to early African Caribbean and white Creole women’s writing, and recontextualizes canonical texts such as The History of Mary Prince, a West Indian Slave, Related by Herself (1831).
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Notes
- 1.
Jon Sensbach, Rebecca’s Revival: Creating Black Christianity in the Atlantic World (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 93.
- 2.
Sylvia R. Frey and Betty Wood, Come Shouting to Zion: African American Protestantism in the American South and British Caribbean to 1830 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 118.
- 3.
See Ann Taves, Fits, Trances, & Visions: Experiencing Religion and Explaining Experience from Wesley to James (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999); David Hempton, Methodism: Empire of the Spirit (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005); D. Bruce Hindmarsh, The Evangelical Conversion Narrative: Spiritual Autobiography in Early Modern England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005); Phyllis Mack, Heart Religion in the British Enlightenment: Gender and Emotion in Early Methodism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008); Maureen Warner-Lewis, Archibald Monteath: Igbo, Jamaican, Moravian (Kingston: University of the West Indies Press, 2007); Sue Thomas, Telling West Indian Lives: Life Narrative and the Reform of Plantation Slavery Cultures, 1804–1834 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014); Jennifer Snead, “Print, Predestination, and the Public Sphere: Transnational Evangelical Periodicals, 1740–1745,” Early American Literature 45, no. 1 (2010), 93–118.
- 4.
“Life of Cornelius, a Negro-Assistant in the Brethren’s Mission in St Thomas, as Related in the Diary of Newherrnhut,” Periodical Accounts Relating to the Missions of the Church of the United Brethren, Established among the Heathen 3 (1801–05), 181–90; “The Life of Cornelius, a Negro Assistant in the Brethren’s Mission in the Island of St Thomas,” Methodist Magazine 18 (1805), 385–90; The Life of Cornelius: A Negro Assistant in the Moravian Church at St Thomas (St John’s: Loving & Hill, 1820), a twelve-page pamphlet; and “Memoir of Cornelius, an Aged Negro, Assistant [sic] in the Brethren’s Church at St Thomas, Who Died in November 1801,” Missionary Register, April 1823, 161–64. The pamphlet is mentioned in Don Mitchell, Mitchell’s West Indian Bibliography: Caribbean Books and Pamphlets, 11th ed., 2012, accessed September 30, 2011, www.books.ai.
- 5.
Hempton, Methodism, 67.
- 6.
“Life of Cornelius,” Periodical Accounts, 182.
- 7.
“Life of Cornelius,” Periodical Accounts, 189–90.
- 8.
An English translation of Stobwasser’s Lebenslauf, “Memoir of Brother John Henry Lewis Stobwasser, Missionary in Antigua, Who Departed This Life at Berlin, January 9, 1832,” was published in Periodical Accounts Relating to the Missions of the Church of the United Brethren, Established among the Heathen and reprinted in the United Brethren’s Missionary Intelligencer and Religious Miscellany 6 (1837): 38–44, 49–55.
- 9.
Simon Gikandi, “Rethinking the Archive of Enslavement,” Early American Literature 50, no. 1 (2015), 93, 92.
- 10.
Beilby Porteus, A Letter to the Governors, Legislatures, and Proprietors of Plantations in the British West-India Islands (London: T. Cadell, T. Payne, & F.C. and J. Rivington, 1808), 33–34.
- 11.
Thomas Coke, A History of the West Indies, Containing the Natural, Civil and Ecclesiastical History of Each Island, vol. 1 (Liverpool: Nuttall, Fisher, and Dixon, 1808), iv–v.
- 12.
Thomas Coke, An Address to the Pious and Benevolent, Proposing an Annual Subscription for the Support of Missionaries in the Highlands and Adjacent Islands of Scotland, the Isles of Jersey, and Guernsey, and Newfoundland, the West Indies, and the Provinces of Novi Scotia and Quebec (London: n.p., 1786), 8.
- 13.
Lewis Stobwasser to Christian Ignatius La Trobe, 8 November 1814, Antigua Archives Book 122/3, Letters from Antigua 1811–18, Moravian Church Archive and Library, London.
- 14.
Instructions for the Members of the Unitas Fratum, Who Minister in the Gospel among the Heathen (London: n.p., 1784), 47.
- 15.
“Proposal for Forming a Separate Fund for the Moravian Missions in the West Indies,” New Evangelical Magazine and Theological Review, 1824, 360.
- 16.
Coke, A History of the West Indies, vol. 1, 184.
- 17.
“Life of Cornelius,” Periodical Accounts, 184.
- 18.
Hindmarsh, Evangelical Conversion Narrative, 175.
- 19.
“Life of Cornelius,” Periodical Accounts, 188–189.
- 20.
Mary Prince, The History of Mary Prince, a West Indian Slave, Related by Herself, ed. Sara Salih (London: Penguin, 2004), 37.
- 21.
Thomas, Telling West Indian Lives, 122–23.
- 22.
Prince, History of Mary Prince, 37.
- 23.
Mary Gilbert, An Extract of Miss Mary Gilbert’s Journal, ed. John Wesley, 5th ed. (1768; London: G. Whitfield, 1799).
- 24.
Free coloured was a historical racial category in the West Indies.
- 25.
The memoir is transcribed in William Dawes to Rev. Josiah Pratt, 1 and 5 May 1821, in Church Missionary Society Archive. Section V: Missions to the Americas. Part 1: West Indies Mission, 1819–1861 (Marlborough: Adam Matthew, 1999), Reel 2, C W M1.
- 26.
Hempton, Methodism, 85.
- 27.
Anne Gilbert, “A Short History of Peregrine Pickle (Now Baptised Peter) a Negro Belonging to His Majesty and Employed in the Naval Yard at English Harbour, Antigua,” Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society/West Indies/Correspondence/Box 116/Fiche Box 3, Archives and Special Collections, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London; “West Indies,” Methodist Magazine 44 (1821): 947–49.
- 28.
Thomas, Telling West Indian Lives, 11–63. Dawes is not mentioned in Eugene Stock’s The History of the Church Missionary Society, Its Environment, Its Men and Its Work, 4 vols. (London: Church Missionary Society, 1899–1916).
- 29.
“Memoir of Cornelius, an Aged Negro, Assistant [sic] in the Brethren’s Church at St Thomas, Who Died in November 1801,” Missionary Register, April 1823, 161.
- 30.
“Proposal for Forming a Separate Fund for the Moravian Missions in the West Indies,” New Evangelical Magazine and Theological Review, 1824, 361. A shorter version of the proposal was published as “Moravian Missions in the West Indies,” Christian Guardian and Church of England Magazine, 1824, 435–37. Material from the proposal was reused in Particulars of the Sunday Schools for Negro Children, &c under the Direction of the Moravian Missionaries in the West Indies (n.p., 1826).
- 31.
Slave Registers of Former British Colonial Dependencies 1812–1834 (Provo, UT: ancestry.com, 2007), online database. Antiguan slave returns show, for instance, that the Moravian missions on the island owned nine slaves in 1821.
- 32.
G. Oliver Maynard, A History of the Moravian Church, Eastern West Indies Province (n.p.: n.p., 1968), 39.
- 33.
Coke, A History of the West Indies, vol. 2 (Liverpool: Nuttall, Fisher, and Dixon, 1810), fold-out plate after page 46.
- 34.
Joan Anim-Addo, “Sister Goose’s Sisters: African-Caribbean Women’s Nineteenth-Century Testimony,” Women: A Cultural Review 15, no. 1 (2004), 37.
- 35.
Johann Heinrich Lewis Stobwasser, Ansichten von Missions-Niederlassungen der Evangelischen Brüder-Gemeinde, Vues des Établissements missionnaires fondés par la Communauté évangélique des Frères-Unis (Basel: Publié au profit des Missions Évangéliques par une Société d’amis de l’Evangile, 1830?), Archive of Early American Images, John Carter Brown Library, Brown University, online collection. The descriptions of the images in this archive do not recognize that the buildings are mission stations.
- 36.
Jamaica Kincaid, A Small Place (London: Virago, 1988), [1], [21], [40], [75]. The cover image—in colour—is a reversal of a segment of Stobwasser’s Vue de Gracehill dans l’Isle d’Antigoa aux Indes occidentales.
- 37.
Prince, History of Mary Prince, 29. Spring Gardens was the Moravian mission in St John’s.
- 38.
Salome Cuthbert, et al., “Memoir of the Life of the Negro-Assistant SALONE [sic] CUTHERT [sic], a Member of the Congregation at GRACEHILL (Compiled in part from her own narrative),” Periodical Accounts Relating to the Missions of the Church of the United Brethren, Established among the Heathen 11 (1829–31): 103–6.
- 39.
Stobwasser, et al., “Memoir,” 50.
- 40.
Katherine Faull, introduction to Moravian Women’s Memoirs: Their Related Lives, 1750–1820 (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1997), xxi.
- 41.
Stobwasser, et al., “Memoir of Brother John Henry Lewis Stobwasser,” 50.
- 42.
Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment (Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1990), 147, 129.
- 43.
Elizabeth Hart Thwaites, “Letter from Elizabeth Hart to a Friend,” October 24, 1794, in The Hart Sisters: Early African Caribbean Writers, Evangelicals, and Radicals, ed. Moira Ferguson (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1993), 107, 109, 111.
- 44.
Coke, History, vol. 1, 38.
- 45.
Coke, History, vol. 3 (Liverpool: Nuttall, Fisher, and Dixon, 1811), 121.
- 46.
Coke, History, vol. 1, 19. Nicole Aljoe draws attention to the number of West Indian slave narratives that are “embedded in other texts such as travel narratives, diaries, and journals or appear in records kept by legal, medical, and religious institutions.” Creole Testimonies: Slave Narratives from the British West Indies, 1709–1838 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 13.
- 47.
Coke, History, vol. 3, 121.
- 48.
The statistics are recorded by Coke, History, vol. 3, 121.
- 49.
Captain Thomas Southey, Chronological History of the West Indies, vol. 3 (London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green, 1827), 147–49. The quotation is from p. 616. The congregation membership is given by Coke, History, vol. 3, 121.
- 50.
Coke, History, vol. 3, 121–23.
- 51.
Paul Wesley Chilcote, introduction to Her Own Story: Autobiographical Portraits of Early Methodist Women (Nashville: Kingswood Press, 2001), 40.
- 52.
Coke, History, vol. 3, 122–23.
- 53.
Katherine Binhammer, The Seduction Narrative in Britain, 1747–1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 8, 2.
- 54.
Saidiya Hartman, “Venus in Two Acts,” Small Axe 26 (June 2008): 12.
- 55.
David Scott, Conscripts of Modernity: The Tragedy of Colonial Enlightenment (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004), 119.
- 56.
Coke, History, vol. 3, 122–23.
- 57.
John A. Vickers, ed., The Journals of Dr. Thomas Coke (Nashville: Kingswood Books, 2005), 37. Extracts from Coke’s journals had been published in 1793 and 1816.
- 58.
Matthew 3:3 (AV).
- 59.
Vickers, ed., Journals, 37.
- 60.
Rev. Dr Wycherley Gumbs, Black Harry “A Slave Redeemed”—A Man of Destiny (U.S. Virgin Islands: Wycherley Gumbs, 1996), 2.
- 61.
John Neal, “‘In the beginning…’: Gender, Ethnicity and the Methodist Missionary Enterprise,” Methodist Missionary Heritage Project, accessed 2 February 2016, http://www.methodistheritage.org.uk/missionary-history-neal-in-the-beginning-2011.pdf.
- 62.
[Abel Stevens], Sketches & Incidents: A Budget from the Saddle-Bags of a Superannuated Itinerant (New York: G. Lane and P.P. Sandford, 1844), 94–102.
- 63.
Vickers, ed., Journals, 110. 3 February 1789.
- 64.
Samuel Drew, The Life of the Rev. Thomas Coke, LL.D. Including in Detail His Various Travels and Extraordinary Missionary Exertions, in England, Ireland, America, and the West-Indies: With an Account of His Death on the 3d of May, 1814, While on a Missionary Voyage to the Island of Ceylon, in the East-Indies. Interspersed with Numerous Reflections; and Concluding with an Abstract of His Writings and His Character (London: n.p., 1817), 176.
- 65.
“Some Account of Harry the Black Mentioned in Dr Coke’s History: Taken from a Recital of a Black Woman in St Bartholomew January 1819,” Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society/West Indies/Correspondence, Archives and Special Collections, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. In developing the novel Black Harry, Gumbs has not known of this source.
- 66.
Hempton writes of Methodists “sustaining ‘islands of holiness’ in an otherwise raucous environment, and … building a grander Christian family out of their manifold and diverse families.” Methodism, 139. The term “sound sanctification” is used in “Some Account of Harry the Black.”
- 67.
Mack, Heart Religion, 13, 130.
- 68.
“Some Account of Harry the Black.”
- 69.
“Some Account of Harry the Black.”
- 70.
Robert Wedderburn, The Horrors of Slavery and Other Writings by Robert Wedderburn, ed. Iain McCalman (New York: Marcus Wiener Publishing, 1991), 139.
- 71.
Srinivas Aravamudan, Tropicopolitans: Colonialism and Agency, 1688–1804 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999), 270–71.
- 72.
Rev. John Horsford, A Voice from the West Indies: Being a Review of the Character and Results of Missionary Efforts in the British and Other Colonies in the Caribbean Sea (London: Alexander Heylin, 1856), 190, 193.
- 73.
“Some Account of Harry the Black.”
- 74.
Taves, Fits, Trances, & Visions, 72.
- 75.
Vickers, ed., Journals, 37.
- 76.
Taves, Fits, Trances & Visions, 72, 75.
- 77.
“Some Account of Harry the Black.”
- 78.
“Some Account of Harry the Black.”
- 79.
Charles Wesley, “Jesus, Lover of My Soul,” Hymnary.org, accessed January 15, 2016, http://www.hymnary.og/text/jesus_lover_of_my_soul_let_me_to_thy_bos.
- 80.
“Some Account of Harry the Black.”
- 81.
Mack, Heart Religion, 13.
- 82.
“Some Account of Harry the Black.”
- 83.
Hempton, Methodism, 60.
- 84.
“Some Account of Harry the Black.”
- 85.
Charles Wesley, “Jesus, Lover of My Soul.”
- 86.
For a very brief discussion of the African-American visionaries, see Jean McMahon Humez, introduction to Gifts of Power: The Writings of Rebecca Jackson, Black Visionary, Shaker Eldress (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1981), 6–7. On Sarah Moore, Jr and Robert Wedderburn, see Thomas, Telling West Indian Lives, 66–81, 97–117.
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Thomas, S. (2018). Early Caribbean Evangelical Life Narrative. In: Aljoe, N.N., Carey, B., Krise, T.W. (eds) Literary Histories of the Early Anglophone Caribbean. New Caribbean Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71592-6_3
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