Skip to main content

Flexible Working: Are We Ready for This?

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Hidden Inequalities in the Workplace

Part of the book series: Palgrave Explorations in Workplace Stigma ((PAEWS))

Abstract

This chapter reviews studies in flexible working arrangements and examines ‘hidden’ inequalities associated with gender, class location, career advancement and family status in relation to the practice of work flexibility in workplaces. Implications drawn from the review suggest that for HR managers and practitioners are organisations offering flexible working arrangements and must recognise and address ‘hidden’ inequalities and discriminations against those who use them and protect employees from retaliatory treatment. Employers need to explore new management initiatives to fully embrace the work-life balance value and facilitate its operation across the workforce regardless of differences in gender, occupations, care responsibilities or family status.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 99.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • ACAS. 2014. The right to request flexible working: An ACAS guide. London: ACAS.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2015. Flexible working and work-life balance. London: ACAS.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen, T.D. 2001. Family-supportive work environments: The role of organisational perceptions. Journal of Vocational Behaviour 58: 414–435.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, T.D., and J. Russell. 1999. Parental leave of absence: Some not so family friendly implications. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 29: 166–191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Atkinson, C., and L. Hall. 2009. The role of gender in varying forms of flexible working, gender. Work and Organisation 16: 650–666.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bianchi, S.M., J.P. Robinson, and M.A. Milkie. 2006. Changing rhythms of American family life. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blair-Loy, M. 2003. Competing devotions: Career and family among women executives. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blair-Loy, M., and A.S. Wharton. 2002. Employees’ use of family-responsive policies and the workplace social context. Social Forces 80: 813–845.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2004. Mothers in finance: Surviving and thriving. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 596: 151–171.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blair-Loy, M., A.S. Wharton, and J. Goodstein. 2011. Exploring the relationship between mission statements and work–life practices in organisations. Organisation Studies 32: 427–450.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blyton, P. 1985. Changes in working time. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2010. Working time, work–life balance and inequality. In Reassessing the employment relationship, ed. P. Blyton, E. Heery, and P. Turnbull, 299–317. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bornstein, S. 2013. The legal and policy implications of the “flexibility stigma”. Journal of Social Issues 69: 389–405.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brescoll, V.L. 2011. Who takes the floor and why? Gender, power, and volubility in organisations. Administrative Science Quarterly 56: 622–641.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brescoll, V.L., and E.L. Uhlmann. 2005. Attitudes toward traditional and non-traditional parents. Psychology of Women Quarterly 29: 436–445.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brescoll, V.L., L. Sarnell, and C. Moss-Rascusin. 2011. Masculinity, status, and subordination: Why working for a gender stereotype violator causes men to lose status. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48: 354–357.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brescoll, V.L., J. Glass, and A. Sedlovskaya. 2013. Ask and ye shall receive? The dynamics of employer provided flexible work options and the need for public policy. Journal of Social Issues 69: 367–388.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Budig, M.J., and P. England. 2001. The wage penalty for motherhood. American Sociological Review 66: 204–225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Butler, A., and A. Skattebo. 2004. What is acceptable for women may not be for men: The effect of family conflicts with work on job-performance ratings. Journal of Occupational and Organisational Psychology 77: 553–564.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cain, M. 2001. The childless revolution: What it means to be childless today. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Casper, W.J., D. Weltman, and E. Kwesiga. 2007. Beyond family-friendly: The construct and measurement of singles friendly work culture. Journal of Vocational Behaviour 70: 478–501.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clear, F., and K. Dickson. 2005. Teleworking practices in small and medium-sized firms: Management style and actor autonomy. New Technology, Work and Employment 20: 218–233.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J.R., and L.E. Single. 2001. An examination of the perceived impact of flexible work arrangements on professional opportunities in public accounting. Journal of Business Ethics 32: 317–328.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Collins, M. 2005. The (not so simple) case for teleworking: A study at Lloyd’s of London. New Technology, Work and Employment 20: 115–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coltrane, S., E.C. Miller, T. DeHaan, and L. Stewart. 2013. Fathers and flexibility stigma. Journal of Social Issues 69: 279–302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conlin, M. 2003. Unmarried America. Business Week, October 20, 106–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Correll, S.J., S. Benard, and I. Paik. 2007. Getting a job: Is there a motherhood penalty? American Journal of Sociology 112: 1297–1338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Janasz, S., M. Forret, D. Haack, and K. Jonsen. 2013. Family status and work attitudes: An investigation in a professional services firm. British Journal of Management 24: 191–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deal, J.J., D.G. Altman, and S.G. Rogelberg. 2010. Millennials at work: What we know and we need to do (if anything). Journal of Business Psychology 25: 191–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeFraine, W.C., W.M. Williams, and S.J. Ceci. 2014. Attracting STEM talent: Do STEM students prefer traditional or work/life-interaction labs? PLoS ONE 9: e89801.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deitch, C.H., and M.L. Huffman. 2001. Family responsive benefits and the two-tiered labor market. In Work and family: Today’s vision, tomorrow’s realities, ed. R. Hertz and N. Marshall, 103–130. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deloitte. 2014. Big demands and high expectations: What generation Y wants from business, government, and the future workplace. https://www2.deloitte.com/uk/en/pages/press-releases/articles/big-demands-and-high-expectations-what-generation-y-wants.html. Accessed 18 Jan 2017.

  • DePaulo, B. 2006. Singled out: How singles are stereotyped, stigmatized, and ignored, and still live happily ever after. New York: St Martin’s Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dex, S., and F. Scheibl. 2001. Family friendly and flexible-working arrangements in UK based SMEs: Business cases. British Journal of Industrial Relations 39: 411–431.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dimitrova, D. 2003. Controlling teleworkers: Supervisions and flexibility revisited. New Technology, Work, and Employment 18: 181–195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dobbin, F., and E.L. Kelly. 2007. How to stop harassment: Professional construction of legal compliance in organisations. American Journal of Sociology 112: 1203–1243.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dodson, L. 2013. Stereotyping low-wage mothers who have work and family conflicts. Journal of Social Issues 69: 257–278.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Drago, R., C.L. Colbeck, K.D. Stauffer, A. Pirretti, K. Burkum, J. Fazioli, G. Lazzaro, and T. Habasevich. 2006. The avoidance of bias against caregiving: The case of academic faculty. American Behavioural Scientist 49: 1222–1247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A.H., and V.J. Steffen. 1984. Gender stereotypes stem from the distribution of women and men into social roles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46 (4): 735–754.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eikhof, D.R., C. Warhurst, and A. Haunschild. 2007. Introduction: What work? What life? What balance? Employer Relations 29: 325–333.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Epstein, C.F., C. Seron, B. Oglensky, and Saut’e R. 1999. The part-time paradox: Time norms, professional life, family and gender. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Felstead, A., N. Jewson, A. Phizacklea, and S. Walters. 2002. The option to work at home: Another privilege for the favoured few? New Technology, Work and Employment 17: 204–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fried, M. 1998. Taking time: Parental leave policy and corporate culture. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frone, M.R., M. Russell, and M.L. Cooper. 1992. Antecedents and outcomes of work-family conflict: Testing a model of the work-family interface. Journal of Applied Psychology 77: 65–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Galinsky, E., T.D. Bond, and D.E. Friedman. 1996. The role of employers in addressing the needs of employed parents. Journal of Social Issues 52: 111–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gerson, K. 1985. Hard choices: How women decide about work, career, and motherhood. Berkeley/Los Angeles: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glass, J.L. 2004. Blessing or curse? Family responsive policies and mothers’ wage growth over time. Work and Occupations 31: 367–394.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glass, J.L., and T. Fujimoto. 1995. Organizational characteristics and the provision of family benefits. Work and Occupations 22: 380–411.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glass, J.L., and V. Camarigg. 1992. Gender, parenthood and job-family compatibility. American Journal of Sociology 98: 131–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Golden, L. 2001. Flexible work schedules: Which workers get them? American Behavioural Scientist 44: 1157–1178.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gregory, A., and S. Milner. 2009. Trade unions and work-life balance: Changing times in France and the UK? British Journal of Industrial Relations 47: 122–146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hewlett, S.A., and N. Vite-León. 2002. High-achieving women, 2001. New York: National Parenting Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hill, E.J., A.J. Hawkins, V. Martinson, and M. Ferris. 2003. Studying “working fathers”: Comparing fathers’ and mothers’ work-family conflict, fit, and adaptive strategies in a global high-tech company. Fathering 1: 239–261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hochschild, A.R. 1997. Time bind: When work becomes home and home becomes work. New York: Metropolitan Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hood, J.C. 1993. Men, work, and family. Newbury Park: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hope, K. 2016. The millennial generation shaking up the workplace rules. BBC News, February 2. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-35460401. Accessed 18 Jan 2017.

  • Hyde, J.S., M.J. Essex, and F. Horton. 1993. Fathers and parental leave: Attitudes and experiences. Journal of Family Issues 14: 616–641.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kalleberg, A.L., B.F. Reskin, and K. Hudson. 2000. Bad jobs in America: Standard and nonstandard employment relations and job quality in the United States. American Sociological Review 65: 256–278.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, E.L., and A. Kalev. 2006. Managing flexible work arrangements in U.S. organisations: Formalized discretion or “a right to ask”. Socio-Economic Review 4: 379–416.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Korsell, N. 2008. The overall situation of lone parent families in Sweden. Stockholm: Ministry of Health and Social Affairs, Coordination Secretariat.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kossek, E.E., B. Lautsch, and S.C. Eaton. 2005. Flexibility enactment theory: Relationships between type, boundaries, control, and work-family effectiveness. In Work and life integration: Organisational, cultural, and individual perspectives, ed. E. Kossekand and S. Lambert. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kossek, E.E., S. Lewis, and L.B. Hammer. 2010. Work-life initiatives and organisational change: Overcoming mixed messages to move from the margin to the mainstream. Human Relations 63: 3–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lambert, S.J. 2009. Making a difference for hourly employees. In Work-life policies that make a real difference for individuals, families, and organisations, ed. A. Booth and A. Crouter. Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lautsch, B., E. Kossek, and S. Eaton. 2009. Supervisory approaches and paradoxes in managing telecommuting implementation. Human Relations 62: 795–827.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, J. 2001. The decline of the male breadwinner model: Implications for work and care. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State and Society 8: 152–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maupin, R.J., and C.R. Lehman. 1994. Talking heads. Stereotypes, status, sex-roles and satisfaction of female and male auditors. Accounting, Organisations, and Society 19: 427–437.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mintz, S., and S. Kellog. 1988. Domestic revolutions: A social history of American life. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Office for National Statistics. 2010. Population estimates by marital status, Mid-2010. http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_244768.pdf. Accessed 18 Jan 2017.

  • Osterman, P. 1995. Work/family programs and the employment relationship. Administrative Science Quarterly 40: 681–700.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perlow, L.A. 1995. Putting the work back into work/family. Group and Organisation Management 20: 227–239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pleck, J.H. 1993. Are family-supportive employer policies relevant to men? In Men, work, and family, ed. J. Hood, 217–237. Newbury Park: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 1995. The gender role strain paradigm: An update. In A new psychology of men, ed. R. Levant and W. Pollack, 11–32. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poelmans, S., and B. Beham. 2008. The moment of truth: Conceptualizing managerial work–life policy allowance decisions. Journal of Occupational and Organisational Psychology 81: 393–400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prentice, D.A., and E. Carranza. 2002. What women and men should be, shouldn’t be, are allowed to be, and don’t have to be: The contents of prescriptive gender stereotypes. Psychology of Women Quarterly 26: 269–281.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reilly, L. 1996. Women living single: Thirty women share their stories of navigating through a married world. Boston: Faber and Faber.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rudman, L.A., and K. Mescher. 2013. Penalizing men who request a family leave: Is flexibility stigma a femininity stigma? Journal of Social Issues 69: 322–340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruiz, Y., and A. Walling. 2005. Home-based working using communications technologies. Labour Market Trends 113: 417–426.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, A.M., and E.E. Kossek. 2008. Work–life policy implementation: Breaking down or creating barriers to inclusiveness? Human Resource Management 47: 295–310.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Secret, M. 2000. Identifying the family, job, and workplace characteristics of employees who use work–family benefits. Family Relations 49: 217–226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stone, P. 2007. Opting out? Why women really quit careers and head home. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stone, P., and L.A. Hernandez. 2013. The all-or-nothing workplace: Flexibility stigma and “opting out” among professional-managerial women. Journal of Social Issues 69: 235–256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thébaud, S. 2010. Masculinity, bargaining, and breadwinning: Understanding men’s housework in the context of paid work. Gender and Society 24: 330–354.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, C.A., L.L. Beauvais, and K.S. Lyness. 1999. When work-family benefits are not enough: The influence of work-family culture on benefit utilization, organisational attachment, and work-family conflict. Journal of Vocational Behaviour 54: 392–415.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Todd, P., and J. Binns. 2013. Work-life balance: Is it now a problem for management? Gender, Work and Organisation 20: 219–231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tregaskis, O. 2000. Telework in its national context. In Managing telework, ed. K. Daniels, D. Lamond, and P. Standen, 9–20. London: Business Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J.M. 2010. A review of the empirical evidence on generational differences in work attitudes. Journal of Business Psychology 25: 201–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J.M., and W. Campbell. 2009. The narcissism epidemic: Living in the age of entitlement. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Wanrooy, B., H. Bewley, A. Bryson, F. Forth, S. Freeth, L. Stokes, and S. Wood. 2013. The 2011 workplace employment relations study: First findings. Department for Business, Innovation and Skills. https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/department-for-business-innovation-skills URN BIS/14/1008 ISBN 978-0-85605-770-0. Accessed 18 Jan 2017.

  • Vandello, J.A., V.E. Hettinger, J.K. Bosson, and J. Siddiqi. 2013. When equal isn’t really equal: The masculine dilemma of seeking work flexibility. Journal of Social Issues 69: 303–321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wayne, J.H., and B.L. Cordiero. 2003. Who is a good organisational citizen? Social perception of male and female employees who use family leave. Sex Roles 49: 233–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wells, S.J. 2007. Are you too family friendly? HR Magazine, October, 35–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wharton, A.S., S. Chivers, and M. Blair-Loy. 2008. Use of formal and informal work-family policies on the digital assembly line. Work and Occupations 35: 327–350.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wheatley, D. in press. Employee satisfaction and use of flexible working arrangements. Work, Employment and Society. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017016631447.

  • Williams, J.C. 2010. Reshaping the work-family debate: Why men and class matter. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, J.C., M. Blair-Loy, and J.L. Berdahl. 2013. Cultural schemas, social class, and the flexibility stigma. Journal of Social Issues 69: 209–234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, S., L.M. de Menezes, and A. Lasoasa. 2003. Family-friendly management in great Britain: testing various perspectives. Industrial Relations 42: 221–250.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, M.B. 1996. Career issues for single adults without children. In The career is dead: Long live the career, ed. D. Hall, 196–219. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Wu, N. (2018). Flexible Working: Are We Ready for This?. In: Caven, V., Nachmias, S. (eds) Hidden Inequalities in the Workplace. Palgrave Explorations in Workplace Stigma. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-59686-0_6

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics