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Relations Between International Law and Consumer Law in the Globalized World: Challenges and Prospects

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Consumer Law and Socioeconomic Development

Abstract

The first Report of the ILA’s Committee on International Protection of Consumers has stated: “Issues of consumer law are no longer national. Market globalization has changed not only the way we produce, but also the way we consume. The new ‘global citizen’ is also a ‘global consumer’, a circumstance that adds new complexities to the area of international consumer protection.”

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See Discussion Paper at www.ila-hq.or/en/committees/index.cfm/cid/1030.

  2. 2.

    Ramsay (2001), p. 45.

  3. 3.

    So Fernández Arroyo (2010).

  4. 4.

    Early academic contributions, as Gisela Rühl reminds, include Lando (1972), Maulaurie (1973) and Von Hoffmann (1974), so Rühl (2011), p. 570. Digital copy in http://ssrn.com/abstract=1816641.

  5. 5.

    See also the pioneer work of Pocar (1986) and Leclerc (1995), p. 330.

  6. 6.

    See Von Hoffmann (1974), p. 398ss; Kropholler (1978), p. 634.

  7. 7.

    Von Mehren (1982).

  8. 8.

    Fernández Arroyo (2010), p. 216. Existing international instruments tended to expressly exclude consumers from their scope, like the 1980 UN Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, the 2005 UN Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts, and the 2005 Hague Convention on Choice of Court Agreements. The Soft law does the same. The soft law normally exclude consumer contracts or does not have special rules for then, treating B2B and B2C contracts at the same standards. Examples included the UNCITRAL Model Law on E-commerce and the UNCITRAL Model Law on arbitration.

  9. 9.

    Especially outside European Community, in Japan, Korea, Russia Federation, Switzerland, Canada and the USA, so Rühl (2011), in http://ssrn.com/abstract=1816641. It is also to mention the long-awaited first Act of China Private International Law, “Law of Application of Law for Foreign-related Civil Relations of People’s Republic of China” (LALFCR), adopted on October 28 2010, in force on April 1 2011 with an especial rule (Article 42) on consumer protection. “Article 42: Consumer contract shall be governed by the law of the place of the consumers’ habitual residence; if the consumer has chosen the law of the place of the provision of commodities or services as applicable, or if the entrepreneur has not been engaged in relevant business activities at the place of the consumer’s habitual residence, the law of the place of the provision of commodities or services shall be applied.” So Weizo (2011), p. 176.

  10. 10.

    See Perez (2008).

  11. 11.

    See for example, the 1999 OECD Guidelines for consumer Protection in the context of electronic commerce and the 2010, Consumer Policy Toolkit, Available from www.oecd.org/sti/consumerpolicy/toolkit.

  12. 12.

    Arrighi (1992), p. 126.

  13. 13.

    See the survey of all these efforts in Fernández Arroyo (2010), pp. 9 et sq. Bourgoignie (2009), pp. 3 sq.

  14. 14.

    So Rühl (2011), p. 570. Digital copy in http://ssrn.com/abstract=1816641.

  15. 15.

    See Teitz and Stewart (2011).

  16. 16.

    See Fernández Arroyo (2010), pp. 659 sq.

  17. 17.

    See Bourgoignie (2009), 9 ff.

  18. 18.

    Montesquieu, L’ esprit des lois, XX, 2, quoted by Kessedjian, Catherine. Codification du droit commercial international et droit international privé, in Recueil des cours, 2002, tome 300, p. 93: “l’effet naturel du commerce est. de porter à la paix…Mais si l’esprit du commerce unit les nations, il n’unit pas de même les particuliers.”

  19. 19.

    Van Loon (2005), p. 33.

  20. 20.

    Cf. Kronke (2005), p. 62.

  21. 21.

    The Germans are calling this new doctrine, Theorie transnationaler Rechtsprozesse, see Buckel et al. (2006), 347 ff.

  22. 22.

    See Geist, Michel. Y a-t-il un ‘là’ là? Pour plus de certitude juridique en rapport avec la compétence judiciare à l’égard d’Internet, Étude commandé par la Conférence pour l’harmonisation des lois au Canada et Industrie Canada, 2001, p. 1 of the original, quoted Digital Equipement Corp. C. Altavista Technology, Inc. 1997, Judge Nacy Gertner: “Internet n’a pas de frontières territoriales”. OCDE, Recommendation of the OECD Council Concerning Guidelines for Consumer Protection in the Context of Electronic Commerce (Paris, 9 December 1999), http://oecd.org./dsti/sti/it/consumer/prod/CPGuidelines_final.pdf.

  23. 23.

    See about this problems Jayme (2000), p. 118ss.

  24. 24.

    See about this nullification of the choice of law clause in consumer contracts and the critical remarks from Siehr, that proposes a favor consumatoris approach, in Siehr (2002), p. 279.

  25. 25.

    Brazil, Superior Tribunal de Justiça, RESP. 63.981—SP j. 11.04.2001, Rel. Sálvio de Figueiredo Teixeira.

  26. 26.

    See position of governments, in Conférence de la Haye de droit international privé: avant-projet préliminaire de Convention sur la compétence et les jugements étrangers en matière civile et commerciale, 30 Octobre 1999, htpp://www.hcch.net/f/conventions/draft36f.html (31.05.2001), and in Consumer Protection in the Global Marketplace: Looking Ahead, US Federal Trade Commission, Bureau of Consumer Protection, September 2000, in, http://www.ftc.gov/bcp/icpw/lookingahead/electronicmkpl.pdf. And position of the NGO’s in Global Business dialogue on electronic Commerce, http://www.gbde.org (31.05.2001) and Consumers International, http://www.consumersinternational.org (31.05.2001).

  27. 27.

    On the difficulties of international commerce see Feldstein (1986), 9 ff. See also Jaudad et al. (1991), p. 1.

  28. 28.

    In this sense European Commission, Guía del consumidor europeo en el mercado único, Comisión Europea, Bruxelas (1995), pp. 15 and 16.

  29. 29.

    See on the vulnerability of the consumer, my book, Marques (2012), 140 ff.

  30. 30.

    A rare exception would be the time-sharing contract or multi-property, which is a long-lasting relation, by times national or international (with exchange circles), see on the subject the Brazilian scholar, Tepedino (1993).

  31. 31.

    see, for all, Lete Achirica (1997), pp. 32–34.

  32. 32.

    Ghersi (1993), 30 ff.

  33. 33.

    Jayme (2003 b), p. 186.

  34. 34.

    See OCDE, Recommendation of the OECD Council Concerning Guidelines for Consumer Protection in the Context of Electronic Commerce (Paris, 9 December 1999), http://oecd.org./dsti/sti/it/consumer/prod/CPGuidelines_final.pdf. And OECD, Draft High Level Principles on Financial Consumer Protection (2011), http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/31/9/48473101.pdf.

  35. 35.

    So Marques (2011), 132 ff. Stiglitz (1995), p. 20.

  36. 36.

    According to Botana García and Ruiz Muñoz (1999), p. 8.

  37. 37.

    See, for all, Ghersi (1995), 139 ff.

  38. 38.

    So Bourgoignie (1988), p. 64.

  39. 39.

    Calais-Auloy (1992), p. 1, considers that this unbalance has always existed, only now it is qualified in such a way that one of the social goals of our time is to protect the consumer in a structurally weaker position.

  40. 40.

    Also Botana, p. 8 mentions the current “degradación de la posición del consumidor”.

  41. 41.

    Nishitani, Yuko. Party autonomy and its Restrictions by Mandatory Rules in Japanese Private International Law, in Basedow et al. (2008), pp. 94–95.

  42. 42.

    Nishitani, p. 94.

  43. 43.

    Stj, Resp. 63.981—SP j. 11.04.2001, Rel. Sálvio de Figueiredo Teixeira.

  44. 44.

    Nishitani, p. 95.

  45. 45.

    Nishitani, p. 95.

  46. 46.

    Nishitani, p. 94.

  47. 47.

    Nishitani, pp. 94–95.

  48. 48.

    Nishitani, p. 97.

  49. 49.

    Rühl (2011), p. 570. Digital copy in http://ssrn.com/abstract=1816641.

  50. 50.

    See, for all, Fernández Arroyo and Mastrángelo (2005), 3 ff.

  51. 51.

    About the need of an Inter-American Convention on consumer protection with special and more favorable conflict of law’s rules to consumers, see my 2000 OAS-CIJ Cours, Lima Marques, Cláudia, A proteção do consumidor: aspectos de direito privado regional e geral, XXVII Curso de Derecho Internacional-OEA/CIJ, Ed. Secretaría General—Subsecretaría de Asuntos Jurídicos, Washington, 2001, pp. 657–780.

  52. 52.

    See Boiteux (2003), p. 104.

  53. 53.

    See Revista PROCON-SP, julho, agosto e setembro 2007, p. 38.

  54. 54.

    Wilson (2006), pp. 28–31.

  55. 55.

    The invitation was the following: “La Presidencia de la Comisión de Asuntos Jurídicos y Políticos tiene el honor de dirigirse a las Misiones Permanentes y a la Misiones Observadoras Permanentes de la OEA con respecto a los trabajos preparativos para la Séptima Conferencia Especializada Interamericana sobre Derecho Internacional Privado (CIVIP-VII) y se permite informar que, con el objetivo de proporcionar la continuación de los trabajos preparatorios para la CIDIP-VII, cuya metodología fue establecida por el Consejo Permanente de la OEA (documento CP/CAJP-2309/05), el Departamento de Protección y Defensa del Consumidor de la Secretaría de Derecho Económico del Ministerio de Justicia de Brasil (DPDC/SDE/MJ), con la colaboración de la Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) y el Instituto Brasileño de Política y Derecho del Consumidor (BRASILCON), organizan una reunión preparatoria. Dicha reunión tratara los siguientes documentos de trabajo aprobados: 1) la propuesta de los EUA de una “Ley Modelo sobre Mecanismos de Restitución Monetaria para los Consumidores”; 2) la propuesta de Brasil respecto “una Convención Interamericana sobre la Ley Aplicable a Algunos Contratos y Relaciones de Consumo” y 3) la propuesta de Canadá de “una Ley Modelo sobre Jurisdicción y Reglas de Conflictos de Leyes para Contratos de Consumo”. La reunión se llevará acabo en la Universidade Federal del Rio Grande do Sul en la ciudad de Porto Alegre, Brasil, los días 2, 3 y 4 de Diciembre de 2006.”

  56. 56.

    See Fernandez Arroyo and Moreno Rodriguez (2007), p. 10; Howells et al. (2010), p. 15.

  57. 57.

    See Geib (2012), 177 ff.

  58. 58.

    Lima Marques and Jacques (2005), p. 127.

  59. 59.

    See, for all, Mayer (1996), 513 ff.

  60. 60.

    Jayme (1996), p. 259.

  61. 61.

    CF. Jayme (2003a), p. 85ss.

  62. 62.

    Medeiros (2004), p. 67ss.

  63. 63.

    Marques (2011), pp. 363–389.

  64. 64.

    Marques (2011)366 ff.

  65. 65.

    Radbruch (2003), pp. 124 a 127. See also about the Radbruch (2003), p. 182.

  66. 66.

    See Kirchgässner (2008), pp. 1 sq.

  67. 67.

    Dahrendorf (2006), p. 25.

  68. 68.

    See also Pinard (1996), p. 315.

  69. 69.

    See Alexy (1996), p. 179.

  70. 70.

    Official translation of the See Ministry Of Justice, Consumer Defense in Latin America- Geopolitical Atlas, English version, Editor Ideal, Brasília, 2005, 16.

  71. 71.

    See Tepedino (2010), pp. 83 sq.

  72. 72.

    Perez (2008), p. 699.

  73. 73.

    See about the social organization of symbols, Baudrillard (2000), pp. 57 sq. And Marques et al. (2006), pp. 145–190.

  74. 74.

    See analysis of Jayme (2003 b), pp. 102 sq.

  75. 75.

    Bourgoignie (1988), p. 215ss.

  76. 76.

    Jayme (1995), II, p. 60s.

  77. 77.

    Marques (2002), pp. 1503–1622. See also Araújo (2007), p. 130s.

  78. 78.

    See OCDE, Recommendation of the OECD Council Concerning Guidelines for Consumer Protection in the Context of Electronic Commerce (Paris, 9 December 1999), http://oecd.org./dsti/sti/it/consumer/prod/CPGuidelines_final.pdf. And doctrine:

  79. 79.

    Jayme (1995), II, p. 33ss.

  80. 80.

    See Geist (2001).

  81. 81.

    See about this problems Jayme (2000), p. 118ss.

  82. 82.

    See about this nullification of the choice of law clause in consumer contracts and the critical remarks from Siehr (2002), p. 279.

  83. 83.

    See the “Law of Application of Law for Foreign-related Civil Relations of People’s Republic of China” (LALFCR), 28.10.2010, in force since 1.04.2011: “Article 42: Consumer contract shall be governed by the law of the country of the consumers’ habitual residence. The law of the country where the products/commodities and services be supplied should govern the contract, provided that it was chosen by the consumer or there is no related business activities of supplier/professional in the country of the consumer’s habitual residence.”

  84. 84.

    Bauman (2007), p. 126.

  85. 85.

    Bauman (2003), p. 10. See also de Bauman (2007); apud Antoniolli (2007), p. 227, note 53.

  86. 86.

    See about the limits of this archetype, Dahrendorf (2006), p. 25.

  87. 87.

    See about this importance, Simmel (1995), S. 9–10.

  88. 88.

    See Jayme (2003 b), pp. 102 sq.

  89. 89.

    Arendt (2009), p. 147.

  90. 90.

    So the title in German: Arendt (2007), pp. 375 sq.

  91. 91.

    In French, the same book, Arendt (1983), p. 301: “Nous avons vu que l’animal laborans, prisionnier du cicle perpetual du processus vital, éternellement soumis à la nécessité du travail et de la consummation, ne peut échapper à cette condition quén mobilisant une autre faculté humaine, la faculté de faire, fabriquer, produire, celle de l’homo faber qui, fabricant d’outils, non seulement soulage les peines du travail mais aussi édifie un monde de durabilité.”

  92. 92.

    Veja Marques (2011), pp. 302 sq.

  93. 93.

    Marques (2016), pp. 42 e seg.

  94. 94.

    Cova (2005), pp. 201 sq. And about the “post-moderne individual”, Rosenau (1992).

  95. 95.

    Jayme (1995), v. II, p. 239ss.

  96. 96.

    Burkatzki (2007), p. 244ss.

  97. 97.

    Höffe (2000), pp. 172.

  98. 98.

    See Losch (2006), pp. 145sq.

  99. 99.

    About the paradigm of the confident consumer and it abuse (Wilhellsom), see Micklitz et al. (2010), pp. 18 sq.

  100. 100.

    See Manstetten (2004), p. 268.

  101. 101.

    See Antoniolli (2007), p. 227, nota 53.

  102. 102.

    Rolle (2005), p. 373ss.

  103. 103.

    See the person as commodity, Bauman (2007), p. 52ss.

  104. 104.

    See Marques (2011).

  105. 105.

    See Bourgoignie (2009), pp. 3sq.; Jaeger (2008), pp. 307 sq.

  106. 106.

    See Soares (2012), 113 ff.

  107. 107.

    See https://s3-eu-west1.amazonaws.com/storageapi/sites/all/files/docpdf/unwtohighlights12enlr_1.pdf.

  108. 108.

    See ‘Global Code of Ethics for Tourism’, UNWTO: “Art. 1. Tourism’s contribution to mutual understanding and respect bet ween peoples and societies 1. The understanding and promotion of the ethical values common to humanity, with an attitude of tolerance and respect for the diversity of religious, philosophical and moral beliefs, are both the foundation and the consequence of responsible tourism; stakeholders in tourism development and tourists themselves should observe the social and cultural traditions and practices of all peoples, including those of minorities and indigenous peoples and to recognize their worth;…”.

  109. 109.

    “2.9. A visitor is a traveler taking a trip to a main destination outside his/her usual environment, for less than a year, for any main purpose (business, leisure or other personal purpose) other than to be employed by a resident entity in the country or place visited. These trips taken by visitors qualify as tourism trips. Tourism refers to the activity of visitors. 2.13. A visitor (domestic, inbound or outbound) is classified as a tourist (or overnight visitor), if his/her trip includes an overnight stay, or as a same-day visitor (or excursionist) otherwise.” http://unstats.un.org/unsd/statcom/doc08/BG-TourismStats.pdf.

  110. 110.

    “Tourism is a social, cultural and economic phenomenon related to the movement of people to places outside their usual place of residence pleasure being the usual motivation. The activities carried out by a visitor may or may not involve a market transaction, and may be different from or similar to those normally carried out in his/her regular routine of life. If they are similar, their frequency or intensity is different when traveling. These activities represent the actions and behaviors of people in preparation for and during a trip in their capacity as consumers.” http://unstats.un.org/unsd/statcom/doc08/BG-TourismStats.pdf.

  111. 111.

    http://www.dadosefatos.turismo.gov.br/export/sites/default/dadosefatos/estatisticas_indicadores/downloads_estatisticas/Estatxstica_e_Indicadores_de_turismo_no_Mundo_-_2009_1__3_.pdf.

  112. 112.

    See Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index, TTCI. 2009: the 10 top-ranked in tourism competitivity in the Americas are: Canada 5.32 (5th in the world), USA 5.28 (8th in the world), Barbados 4.77 (30th), Costa Rica 4.42 (42nd), Brazil 4.35 (45th), Mexico 4.29 (51st), Puerto Rico 4.27 (53rd), Panama 4.23 (55th), Chile 4.18 (57th), Jamaica 4.13 (60th). In 2009, Brazil occupied the 45th position, in a total of 139 countries, but dropped to 52nd 2 years later, in a total of 133 countries, in 2011, behind the United States, Canada, Barbados, Mexico, Costa Rica, and Puerto Rico.

  113. 113.

    http://www.dadosefatos.turismo.gov.br/export/sites/default/dadosefatos/estatisticas_indicadores/downloads_estatisticas/Estatxstica_e_Indicadores_de_turismo_no_Mundo_-_2009_1__3_.pdf.

  114. 114.

    See, Hippel (1986), pp. 255 e seg.

  115. 115.

    http://www.univeur.org/CMS/UserFiles/65.%20Manila.PDF.

  116. 116.

    http://ethics.unwto.org/en/content/global-code-ethics-tourism.

  117. 117.

    See also guidelines on sustainable tourism, http://hqweb.unep.org.

  118. 118.

    http://www.unidroit.info/program.cfm?menu=convention&file=convention&lang=en&msid=46.

  119. 119.

    Garcia Rubio (1999), p. 29:“En 1966 el Instituto [UNIDROIT] emprendió la tarea de elaborar reglas uniformes para las relaciones jurídicas entre las agencias de viaje y sus cleintes, que concluyeron con la redacción de un Convenio internacional relativo al contrato de viaje (CCV), finalmente firmado en Brusela el 23 de abril de 1970…[de] escaso éxito…”.

  120. 120.

    http://www.unidroit.org/english/implement/i-70.pdf, more specifically: Italy, China, San Marino, Togo, Cameroon, Benin. Entry into force: 26 February 1976.

  121. 121.

    See Tale (2005), p. 17, on the Argentinean Law (Ley 18.829 y Decr. 2182/72) and the Spanish Law of 1963. On the inclusion in the German BGB of the Reisevertrag, see Garcia Rubio (1999), p. 38; Minervini (1974), pp. 443 e seg.

  122. 122.

    Aguirre Ramírez and Fresnedo (1999), pp. 11 e seg.

  123. 123.

    http://www.oecd.org/document/63/0,3746,en_2649_34389_1932863_1_1_1_1,00.html. The website states that: “…the OECD Tourism Committee is in a unique position to serve as an international forum for co-ordinating policies and actions. The OECD is the only global forum for discussions of tourism policies among industrialised countries.”

  124. 124.

    Borrowed from TUDELA, Tueda (2006), p. 251.

  125. 125.

    Bauman (2007), pp. 52 e seg.

  126. 126.

    See OECD and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) study titled “Climate Change and Tourism Policy in OECD Countries”.

  127. 127.

    Pezzutti (2010), pp. 16–17.

  128. 128.

    See Garcia Rubio (1999), pp. 12 e seg.

  129. 129.

    See Lete Achirica (1997), p. 46 and following. On the new Directive on the topic of 2008 and the Framework Directive of 2011, see Paisant (2010), p. 303; Gest (2010), p. 13 e seg.

  130. 130.

    Micklitz et al. (2010), p. 563, that on the Rome I Regulation and its article 6 says that: “This declaration is by no means clear and needs interpretation. Problematic is the case of the so-called ‘active consumer’ who travels abroad and should at least be protected by the mandatory provisions of the law of the country of his temporary stay; this seems to be excluded by Article 6, according to Garcímatin a ‘loophole of the text’ which would allow unlimited free choice under Article 3(1).”

  131. 131.

    D’Archivio, María e., Otro vulnerable entre nosotros ... el consumidor turista, in Microjuris.com , doc. 5652-AR.

  132. 132.

    Labandera (2006), pp. 41–42.

  133. 133.

    Labandera (2006), p. 43 y nota 17.

  134. 134.

    Tueda (2006), pp. 256 e seg.

  135. 135.

    In Argentina student tourism is considered to be consumption and is expressly regulated, see Del Busto (2006), pp. 282 e seg.

  136. 136.

    Atheniense (2002), pp. 17 e seg.

  137. 137.

    A research from the Brazilian government in preparation for the 2014 World Cup says that “most tourists visiting Brazil in 2010 did not use travel agencies (65,4%).” http://www.turismo.gov.br/export/sites/default/turismo/o_ministerio/publicacoes/downloads_publicacoes/Documento_Referencial_Turismo_no_Brasil_2011-2014.pdf.

  138. 138.

    See the research on the Province of Mendoza, Argentina, showing an increase of 80% in problems with international destinations (Brazil), Benitez (2006), p. 233.

  139. 139.

    See on Directive 90/314/CEE of the Council, of 13 July 1990, Miranda (2000), p. 22 and following. And the leading case, CJCE, 26.2.1992, Mme. Hacker c. Euro-Relais, Recuiel Dalloz, nr. 37, 29.12.1992, p. 454. And Lopez (2009), pp. 160–161.

  140. 140.

    See Poillot (2006), pp. 87 e seg.

  141. 141.

    See UFRGS research on the Brazilian case law (and information system of consumer litigation in Brazil, SINDEC, www.mj.org.br), Argentinean, Uruguayan and North American, attached to the research on the Province of Mendoza, Argentina, showing an increase of 80% in the problems with international destinations (Brazil), Benitez (2006), pp. 232–233:“Tipo de quejas de los turistas: 1. Transporte aéreo 40% (retraso en vuelos) 2. Alojamiento 17% (alojamiento de alquiler) 3. Agencia de Viajes 13% (incumplimiento de servicios) 4. Trsporte automotor 11% (demora) 5. Precios diferenciados a turistas extramjeros 8% (hotelería y entradas en parques nacionales) 6. Alquiler de autor 3¨(calidad de los vehículos) 7. Gastronomía 2% (sobrefacturación) 8. Otros 6%.”

  142. 142.

    See Achirica (1987), p. 277.

  143. 143.

    See www.mj.org.br and previous problems, in Fellous (2004), p. 155 and following.

  144. 144.

    ASADIP website, www.asadip.org.py.

  145. 145.

    Teitz and Stewart (2011), p. 100.

  146. 146.

    See www.ila.org.

  147. 147.

    See similar initiative by the Pace University New York, in www.pace.edu.us. The goal seems to be to established common universal substantial principles on consumer protection that can be used as a contract “law” by the parties, similar to the unified sales contract law now proposed in Europe (COM 2011 635).

  148. 148.

    See COM (2011)635 final, Proposal of a new Regulation on a Common European Sales Law for consumers.

  149. 149.

    Teitz and Stewart (2011), pp. 81, 82.

  150. 150.

    Jayme (1995), p. 33ss.

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    Claudia Lima Marques

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    Claudia Lima Marques

  2. Faculty of Law, University of Macau, Macau, Macao

    Dan Wei

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Marques, C.L. (2017). Relations Between International Law and Consumer Law in the Globalized World: Challenges and Prospects. In: Lima Marques, C., Wei, D. (eds) Consumer Law and Socioeconomic Development. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55624-6_16

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