Abstract
The work and organisational psychologist Wilmar Schaufeli explores the historical roots of burnout as well as the specific socio-cultural factors that led to its emergence. Addressing the question of whether the major symptoms of burnout are ubiquitous or context specific, he analyses how they relate to similar syndromes, such as neurasthenia and depression. Have burnout-like phenomena been observed in the past as well, and is it a typically Western phenomenon? Schaufeli’s chapter concludes with a discussion of differences in the ways the diagnosis is used and understood in North America and Europe.
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Notes
- 1.
Christina Maslach and Wilmar Schaufeli, ‘Historical and Conceptual Development of Burnout’, in Professional Burnout: Recent Developments in Theory and Research, ed. Wilmar Schaufeli, Christina Maslach, and Tadeausz Marek (Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis, 1993), pp. 1–16.
- 2.
Wendy Awa, Martina Plaumann, and Ulla Walter, ‘Burnout Prevention: A Review of Intervention Programs’, Patient Education and Counseling 78 (2010), 184–90.
- 3.
Laurentiu Maricuţoiu, Florin Sava, and Oana Butta, ‘The Effectiveness of Controlled Interventions on Employees’ Burnout: A Meta-Analysis’, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 89 (2016), 1–27.
- 4.
For a more detailed discussion, see Schaufeli and Maslach, ‘Historical and Conceptual Development of Burnout’, and Wilmar Schaufeli, Michael Leiter, and Christina Maslach, ‘Burnout: 35 Years of Research and Practice’, Career Development International 14 (2009), 204–20.
- 5.
Herbert Freudenberger, ‘Staff Burnout’, Journal of Social Issues 30 (1974), 159–65.
Although Freudenberger is credited for coining the term burnout, it was first used in a publication by Bradley (H. Bradley, ‘Community-Based Treatment for Young Adult Offenders’, Crime and Delinquency 15 (1969), 359–70), who described a community-based treatment program for young offenders (Enzmann and Kleiber, 1989). The term burnout is mentioned in quotation marks only once, when a particular time schedule is discussed that should prevent it from occurring among the staff that run the programme. Although no further explanation or description is provided, it illustrates that the notion of ‘burnout’ was in the air by the end of the 1960s in the US.
- 6.
Christina Maslach, ‘Burned-Out’, Human Behavior 9 (1976), 16–22, and Christina Maslach, ‘Burnout: A Multidimensional Perspective’, in Professional Burnout: Recent Developments in Theory and Research, ed. Wilmar Schaufeli, Christina Maslach, and Tadeusz Marek (Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis, 1993), pp. 19–32.
- 7.
Christina Maslach and Suzan Jackson, ‘The Measurement of Experienced Burnout’, Journal of Occupational Behavior 2 (1981), 99–113.
- 8.
Schaufeli and Maslach, ‘Historical and Conceptual Development of Burnout’.
- 9.
Cindy McGeary and Donald McGeary, ‘Occupational Burnout’, in Handbook of Occupational Health and Wellness, ed. Robert Gatchel and Izabella Schultz (New York: Springer, 2012), pp. 181–200.
- 10.
Wilmar Schaufeli et al., ‘Maslach Burnout Inventory – General Survey’, in The Maslach Burnout Inventory – Test Manual, third ed., ed. Christina.Maslach, Suzan Jackson, and Michael Leiter (Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1996).
- 11.
Wilmar Schaufeli, Michael Leiter, and Christina Maslach, ‘Burnout: 35 Years of Research and Practice’, Career Development International 14 (2009), 204–20.
- 12.
Wilmar Schaufeli, ‘The Balance of Give and Take: Toward a Social Exchange Model of Burnout’, The International Review of Social Psychology 19 (2006), 87–131.
- 13.
Richard Sennett, The Corrosion of Character: The Personal Consequences of Work in the New Capitalism (New York: Norton, 1998).
- 14.
Christoffer Lasch, The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Returns (New York: Norton, 1979).
- 15.
Barry Farber, ‘Introduction: A Critical Perspective on Burnout’, in Stress and Burnout in the Human Services Professions, ed. Barry Farber (New York: Pergamon, 1983), pp. 1–20 (p.11).
- 16.
The authorship of many of the poems in this collection, which is attributed to Shakespeare, is disputed.
- 17.
Dirk Enzmann and Dieter Kleiber, Helfer-Leiden: Streβ und Burnout in psychosozialen Berufen (Heidelberg: Asanger, 1989), p. 18.
- 18.
Matthias Burisch, Das Burnout-Syndrome, fourth ed. (Heidelberg: Springer, 2010).
- 19.
Burisch, Das Burnout-Syndrome.
- 20.
Morris Schwartz & Gwen Will, ‘Low Morale and Mutual Withdrawal on a Mental Hospital Ward’, Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes 16 (1953), 337–53.
- 21.
Maslach, ‘Burnout: A Multidimensional Perspective’.
- 22.
Marijke Gijswijt-Hofstra, ‘Introduction: Cultures of Neurasthenia from Beard to the First World War’, in Cultures of Neurasthenia from Beard to the First World War, ed. Marijke Gijswijt-Hofstra and Roy Porter (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2001), pp. 1–30.
- 23.
Stephany Leone et al., ‘The Sides of the Same Coin? On the History and Phenomenology of Chronic Fatigue and Burnout’, Psychology & Health 26 (2011), 449–64.
- 24.
Leone et al., ‘The Sides of the Same Coin?’, p. 451.
- 25.
Gijswijt-Hofstra, ‘Introduction: Cultures of Neurasthenia from Beard to the First World War’, p. 11.
- 26.
Herbert Freudenberger and Geraldine Richelson, Burnout: How to Beat the High Costs of Success (New York: Bantam Books, 1980), p. 6.
- 27.
Schaufeli, Leiter, and Maslach, ‘Burnout: 35 Years of Research and Practice’.
- 28.
Gijswijt-Hofstra, ‘Introduction: Cultures of Neurasthenia from Beard to the First World War’.
- 29.
Schaufeli and Maslach, ‘Historical and Conceptual Development of Burnout’.
- 30.
Gijswijt-Hofstra, ‘Introduction: Cultures of Neurasthenia from Beard to the First World War’, p. 23.
- 31.
Ibid., p. 25.
- 32.
Leone et al., ‘The Sides of the Same Coin?’.
- 33.
Allan Horwitz and Jerome Wakefield, The Loss of Sadness: How Psychiatry Transformed Normal Sorrow into Depressive Disorder (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007).
- 34.
The DSM describes major depressive disorders as follows: ‘The essential feature of a major depressive episode is a period of at least 2 weeks during which there is either depressed mood or the loss of interest or pleasure in nearly all activities. […] The individual must also experience at least four additional symptoms drawn from a list that includes changes in appetite or weight, sleep, and psychomotor activity; decreased energy; feelings of worthlessness or guilt; difficulty thinking, concentrating, or making decisions; or recurrent thoughts of death or suicidal ideation or suicide plans or attempts.’
- 35.
Herbert Freudenberger and Geraldine Richelson, Burnout: How to Beat the High Costs of Success (New York: Bantam Books, 1980).
- 36.
Jari Hakanen and Wilmar Schaufeli, ‘Do Burnout and Work Engagement Predict Depressive Symptoms and Life Satisfaction? A Three-Wave Seven-Year Prospective Study’, Journal of Affective Disorders 141 (2012), 415–24.
- 37.
Stephanie Leone et al., ‘The Temporal Relationship between Burnout and Prolonged Fatigue: A 4-year Prospective Cohort Study’, Stress & Health 25 (2009), 365–74.
- 38.
Arnold Glass and John Knight, ‘Perceived Control Depressive Symptomatology, and Professional Burnout: A Review of the Evidence’, Psychology & Health 11 (1996), 23–48.
- 39.
Renzo Bianchi, Irvin Sconfield, and Eric Laurent, ‘Burnout-Depressive Overlap: A Review’, Clinical Psychology Review 36 (2015), 28–41.
- 40.
Schaufeli, Leiter, and Maslach, ‘Burnout: 35 Years of Research and Practice’.
- 41.
Ina Rösing, Ist die Burnout-Forschung ausgebrannt? Analyse und Kritik der internationalen Burnout-Forschung (Heidelberg: Asanger, 2003).
- 42.
Victor Savicki, Burnout across Cultures: Stress and Coping in Child and Health Care Workers (Westpoint, CT: Preager, 2002).
- 43.
Rösing, Ist die Burnout-Forschung ausgebrannt?
- 44.
Maslach and Schaufeli, ‘Historical and Conceptual Development of Burnout’.
- 45.
Wilmar Schaufeli and Dirk Enzmann, The Burnout Companion to Study and Research: A Critical Analysis (London: Taylor & Francis, 1998), pp. 31–7.
- 46.
It should not be disregarded that other European countries have similar social security systems. However, detailed information on these is only available in the local languages, which are beyond the comprehension of this author.
- 47.
Torbjörn Friberg, ‘Diagnosing Burn-Out: An Anthropological Study of a Social Concept in Sweden’ (unpublished doctoral thesis, Lund University, 2006), pp. 69–72.
- 48.
Jacques van der Klink and Frank van Dijk, ‘Dutch Practice Guidelines for Managing Adjustment Disorders in Occupational and Primary Health Care’, Scandinavian Journal of Work Environment and Health 29 (2003), 478–87.
- 49.
The diagnostic criteria are physiological and/or mental symptoms of exhaustion for at least two weeks, an essential lack of psychological energy, and symptoms such as difficulties in concentrating, a decreased ability to cope with stress, irritability or emotional instability, sleep disturbances, muscle pain, dizziness, or palpitations. These symptoms have to occur every day during a two-week period and must cause significant suffering leading to an impaired work capacity. Finally, the symptoms must be related to work but not to other psychiatric or medical diagnoses, or to substance abuse.
References
Wendy Awa, Martina Plaumann, and Ulla Walter, ‘Burnout Prevention: A Review of Intervention Programs’, Patient Education and Counseling 78 (2010), 184–90.
Renzo Bianchi, Irvin Sconfield, and Eric Laurent, ‘Burnout-Depressive Overlap: A Review’, Clinical Psychology Review 36 (2015), 28–41.
H. Bradley, ‘Community-Based Treatment for Young Adult Offenders’, Crime and Delinquency 15 (1969), 359–70.
Matthias Burisch, Das Burnout-Syndrome, fourth edition (Heidelberg: Springer, 2010).
Dirk Enzmann and Dieter Kleiber, Helfer-Leiden: Streβ und Burnout in psychosocialen Berufen (Heidelberg: Asanger, 1989).
Barry Farber, ‘Introduction: A Critical Perspective on Burnout’, in Stress and Burnout in the Human Services Professions, ed. Barry Farber (New York: Pergamon, 1983), pp. 1–20.
Herbert Freudenberger, ‘Staff Burnout’, Journal of Social Issues 30 (1974), 159–65.
Herbert Freudenberger and Geraldine Richelson, Burnout: How to Beat the High Costs of Success (New York: Bantam Books, 1980).
Torbjörn Friberg, ‘Diagnosing Burn-Out: An Anthropological Study of a Social Concept in Sweden’ (unpublished doctoral thesis, Lund University, 2006).
Marijke Gijswijt-Hofstra, ‘Introduction: Cultures of Neurasthenia from Beard to the First World War’, in Cultures of Neurasthenia from Beard to the First World War, ed. Marijke Gijswijt-Hofstra and Roy Porter (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2001), pp. 1–30.
Arnold Glass and John Knight, ‘Perceived Control Depressive Symptomatology, and Professional Burnout: A Review of the Evidence’, Psychology & Health 11 (1996), 23–48.
Graham Greene, A Burnt-Out Case (Harmonthworth: Penguin, 1960).
Jari Hakanen and Wilmar Schaufeli, ‘Do Burnout and Work Engagement Predict Depressive Symptoms and Life Satisfaction? A Three-Wave Seven-Year Prospective Study’, Journal of Affective Disorders 141 (2012), 415–24.
Allan Horwitz and Jerome Wakefield, The Loss of Sadness: How Psychiatry Transformed Normal Sorrow into Depressive Disorder (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007).
Christoffer Lasch, The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Returns (New York: Norton, 1979).
Stephanie Leone et al., ‘The Temporal Relationship between Burnout and Prolonged Fatigue: A 4-year Prospective Cohort Study’, Stress & Health 25 (2009), 365–74.
Stephanie Leone et al., ‘The Sides of the Same Coin? On the History and Phenomenology of Chronic Fatigue and Burnout’, Psychology & Health 26 (2011), 449–64.
Laurentiu Maricuţoiu, Florin Sava, and Oana Butta, ‘The Effectiveness of Controlled Interventions on Employees’ Burnout: A Meta-Analysis’, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 89 (2016), 1–27.
Christina Maslach, ‘Burned-Out’, Human Behavior 9 (1976), 16–22.
Christina Maslach, ‘Burnout: A Multidimensional Perspective’, in Professional Burnout: Recent Developments in Theory and Research, ed. Wilmar Schaufeli, Christina Maslach, and Tadeusz Marek (Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis, 1993), pp. 19–32.
Christina Maslach and Suzan Jackson, ‘The Measurement of Experienced Burnout’, Journal of Occupational Behavior 2 (1981), 99–113.
Christina Maslach and Wilmar Schaufeli, ‘Historical and Conceptual Development of Burnout’, in Professional Burnout: Recent Developments in Theory and Research, ed. Wilmar Schaufeli, Christina Maslach, and Tadeausz Marek (Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis, 1993), pp. 1–16.
Cindy McGeary and Donald McGeary, ‘Occupational Burnout’, in Handbook of Occupational Health and Wellness, ed. Robert Gatchel and Izabella Schultz (New York: Springer, 2012), pp. 181–200.
Ina Rösing, Ist die Burnout-Forschung ausgebrannt? Analyse und Kritik der internationalen Burnout-Forschung (Heidelberg: Asanger, 2003).
Victor Savicki, Burnout across Cultures: Stress and Coping in Child and Health Care Workers (Westpoint, CT: Preager, 2002).
Wilmar Schaufeli, ‘The Balance of Give and Take: Toward a Social Exchange Model of Burnout’, The International Review of Social Psychology 19 (2006), 87–131.
Wilmar Schaufeli and Dirk Enzmann, The Burnout Companion to Study and Research: A Critical Analysis (London: Taylor & Francis, 1998).
Wilmar Schaufeli, Michael Leiter, and Christina Maslach, ‘Burnout: 35 Years of Research and Practice’, Career Development International 14 (2009), 204–20.
Wilmar Schaufeli et al., ‘Maslach Burnout Inventory – General Survey’, in The Maslach Burnout Inventory – Test Manual, third ed., ed. Christina Maslach, Suzan Jackson and Michael Leiter (Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1996).
Morris Schwartz and Gwen Will, ‘Low Morale and Mutual Withdrawal on a Mental Hospital Ward’, Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes 16 (1953), 337–53.
Richard Sennett, The Corrosion of Character: The Personal Consequences of Work in the New Capitalism (New York: Norton, 1998).
Jacques Van Der Klink and Frank Van Dijk, ‘Dutch Practice Guidelines for Managing Adjustment Disorders in Occupational and Primary Health Care’, Scandinavian Journal of Work Environment and Health 29 (2003), 478–87.
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Schaufeli, W.B. (2017). Burnout: A Short Socio-Cultural History. In: Neckel, S., Schaffner, A., Wagner, G. (eds) Burnout, Fatigue, Exhaustion. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-52887-8_5
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