Motivation

Abstract

This chapter shows that when considering motivation, many people tend to focus on cognitive, or conscious, deliberative processes; particularly, the ways in which an individual weighs perceived outcomes against the cost or risks involved in various behaviors. In addition to briefly reviewing such cognitive theories, this chapter discusses a number of more fundamental, arguably evolutionarily-based, drives that seem to be involved in motivating human behavior. It is argued that, ultimately, motivation is the result of a confluence of many factors including biological needs, social influences, self-evaluation, and cognitive evaluations. This chapter begins with a review of various needs-based, or drive-based, theories of motivation. Next, it looks at how behavior is shaped by reinforcement or conditioning, as well as the influence of social context. Cognitive processes involved in motivation are then reviewed, as well as arguments for a distinction between unconscious and conscious levels of motivation which may often be in conflict. This is followed by a discussion of self-understanding, or identity, the desire for self-consistency and self-worth, the processes by which internal conflicts are sometimes reconciled. It is argued that, when considering motivation, particularly in the context of risk perception, essential drives for social relatedness and acceptance, as well as the inertial tendencies of existing behaviors, are often the most powerful motivators for human beings. Cognitive processes, rather than leading to strictly rational weighing of options, can also be employed to create explanations, or excuses, for why one “chooses” to engage in risky behaviors. Often, in practice, protecting one’s self-image is more important than strict rationality. Finally, some practical implications of these ideas for those interested in product presentation and placement are discussed.