Abstract
Bone development occurs through either intramembranous ossification (mesenchymal or connective tissue) or enchondral ossification, where bone is formed from hyaline cartilage. The flat bones of the skull and the mandible, maxilla and clavicles are formed by intramembranous ossification. The long bones and spine and most of the other bones of the axial skeleton are formed by enchondral ossification. In this chapter, the growth and development of the hip, particularly the proximal femur, is reviewed as well as the pathways for the development of adaptive bony changes leading to FAI.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Agricola R, Bessems JH, Ginai AZ, Heijboer MP, van der Heijden RA, Verhaar JA, Weinans H, Waarsing JH. The development of Cam-type deformity in adolescent and young male soccer players. Am J Sports Med. 2012;40(5):1099–106.
Agricola R, Heijboer MP, Ginai AZ, Roels P, Zadpoor AA, Verhaar JA, Weinans H, Waarsing JH. A cam deformity is gradually acquired during skeletal maturation in adolescent and young male soccer players: a prospective study with minimum 2-year follow-up. Am J Sports Med. 2014;42(4):798–806.
Ayeni OR, Banga K, Bhandari M, Maizlin Z, de Sa D, Golev D, Harish S, Farrokhyar F. Femoroacetabular impingement in elite ice hockey players. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2014;22(4):920–5.
Baranto A, Hellstrom M, Nyman R, Lundin O, Sward L. Back pain and degenerative abnormalities in the spine of young elite divers: a 5-year follow-up magnetic resonance imaging study. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2006;14(9):907–14.
Bisgard JD. Longitudinal bone growth: the influence of sympathetic deinnervation. Ann Surg. 1933;97(3):374–80.
Brighton CT. Structure and function of the growth plate. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1978;136:22–32.
Brighton CT. The growth plate. Orthop Clin North Am. 1984;15(4):571–95.
Caine D, DiFiori J, Maffulli N. Physeal injuries in children’s and youth sports: reasons for concern? Br J Sports Med. 2006;40(9):749–60.
Carsen S, Moroz PJ, Rakhra K, Ward LM, Dunlap H, Hay JA, Willis RB, Beaule PE. The Otto Aufranc Award. On the etiology of the cam deformity: a cross-sectional pediatric MRI study. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2014;472(2):430–6.
Chung SM. The arterial supply of the developing proximal end of the human femur. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1976;58(7):961–70.
Chung SM, Batterman SC, Brighton CT. Shear strength of the human femoral capital epiphyseal plate. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1976;58(1):94–103.
Delgado-Baeza E, Sanz-Laguna A, Miralles-Flores C. Experimental trauma of the triradiate epiphysis of the acetabulum and hip dysplasia. Int Orthop. 1991;15(4):335–9.
Dias JJ, Lamont AC. Ultrasonic imaging of the lateral artery of the capital femoral epiphysis: brief report. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1989;71(2):322.
Dudda M, Kim Y-J, Zhang Y, Nevitt MC, Xu L, Niu J, Goggins J, Doherty M, Felson DT. Morphological differences between Chinese and Caucasian female hips: could they account for the ethnic difference in hip osteoarthritis? Arthritis Rheum. 2011;63(10):2992–9.
Dvonch VM, Bunch WH. Pattern of closure of the proximal femoral and tibial epiphyses in man. J Pediatr Orthop. 1983;3(4):498–501.
Epstein NE, Epstein JA. Limbus lumbar vertebral fractures in 27 adolescents and adults. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 1991;16(8):962–6.
Flecker H. Time of appearance and fusion of ossification centers as observed by roentgenographic methods. Am J Roentgenol. 1942;47:97–159.
Fujii T, Takai S, Arai Y, Kim W, Amiel D, Hirasawa Y. Microstructural properties of the distal growth plate of the rabbit radius and ulna: biomechanical, biochemical, and morphological studies. J Orthop Res. 2000;18(1):87–93.
Goodman DA, Feighan JE, Smith AD, Latimer B, Buly RL, Cooperman DR. Subclinical slipped capital femoral epiphysis. Relationship to osteoarthrosis of the hip. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1997;79(10):1489–97.
Hack K, Di Primio G, Rakhra K, Beaule PE. Prevalence of cam-type femoroacetabular impingement morphology in asymptomatic volunteers. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2010;92(14):2436–44.
Harris WH. Etiology of osteoarthritis of the hip. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1986;213:20–33.
Hefti F, von Laer L, Morscher E. Principles and pathogenesis of post-traumatic axial malalignment in the growth years. Orthopade. 1991;20(6):324–30.
Heuter C. Anatomische stidien an den extremitatengelenken neugeborener und erwachsener. Virchows Archiv Int J Pathol. 1862;25:572–99.
Hogervorst T, Bouma H, de Boer SF, de Vos J. Human hip impingement morphology: an evolutionary explanation. J Bone Joint Surg. 2011;93(6):769–76.
Jaramillo D, Laor T, Zaleske DJ. Indirect trauma to the growth plate: results of MR imaging after epiphyseal and metaphyseal injury in rabbits. Radiology. 1993;187(1):171–8.
Jonasson P, Ekstrom L, Hansson H-A, Sansone M, Karlsson J, Sward L, Baranto A. Cyclical loading causes injury in and around the porcine proximal femoral physeal plate: proposed cause of the development of cam deformity in young athletes. J Exp Orthop. 2015;2:6.
Kember NF. Cell division in endochondral ossification. A study of cell proliferation in rat bones by the method of tritiated thymidine autoradiography. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1960;42B:824–39.
Kumar R, Aggarwal A. Femoroacetabular impingement and risk factors: a study of 50 cases. Orthop Surg. 2011;3(4):236–41.
Lindstrom JR, Ponseti IV, Wenger DR. Acetabular development after reduction in congenital dislocation of the hip. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1979;61(1):112–8.
Liu RW, Armstrong DG, Levine AD, Gilmore A, Thompson GH, Cooperman DR. An anatomic study of the epiphyseal tubercle and its importance in the pathogenesis of slipped capital femoral epiphysis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2013;95(6):e341–8.
Lundin O, Hellstrom M, Nilsson I, Sward L. Back pain and radiological changes in the thoraco-lumbar spine of athletes. A long-term follow-up. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2001;11(2):103–9.
Maffulli N, Longo UG, Gougoulias N, Loppini M, Denaro V. Long-term health outcomes of youth sports injuries. Br J Sports Med. 2010;44(1):21–5.
Malina RM. Exercise as an influence upon growth. Review and critique of current concepts. Clin Pediatr. 1969;8(1):16–26.
Morgan JD, Somerville EW. Normal and abnormal growth at the upper end of the femur. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1960;42-B:264–72.
Murray RO. The aetiology of primary osteoarthritis of the hip. Br J Radiol. 1965;38(455):810–24.
Murray RO, Duncan C. Athletic activity in adolescence as an etiological factor in degenerative hip disease. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1971;53(3):406–19.
Nicholson JT, Nixon JE. Epiphyseal fractures. J Pediatr. 1961;59:939–50.
Ogden JA. Changing patterns of proximal femoral vascularity. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1974;56(5):941–50.
Packer JD, Safran MR. The etiology of primary femoroacetabular impingement: genetics or acquired deformity? J Hip Preserv Surg. 2015. doi:10.1093/jhps/hnv046.
Plaster RL, Schoenecker PL, Capelli AM. Premature closure of the triradiate cartilage: a potential complication of pericapsular acetabuloplasty. J Pediatr Orthop. 1991;11(5):676–8.
Pollard TC, Villar RN, Norton MR, Fern ED, Williams MR, Simpson DJ, Murray DW, Carr AJ. Femoroacetabular impingement and classification of the cam deformity: the reference interval in normal hips. Acta Orthop. 2010;81(1):134–41.
Ponseti IV. Growth and development of the acetabulum in the normal child. Anatomical, histological, and roentgenographic studies. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1978;60(5):575–85.
Portinaro NM, Murray DW, Benson MK. Microanatomy of the acetabular cavity and its relation to growth. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2001;83(3):377–83.
Robertson Jr WW. Newest knowledge of the growth plate. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1990;253:270–8.
Shapiro F, Holtrop ME, Glimcher MJ. Organization and cellular biology of the perichondrial ossification groove of ranvier: a morphological study in rabbits. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1977;59(6):703–23.
Siebenrock KA, Behning A, Mamisch TC, Schwab JM. Growth plate alteration precedes cam-type deformity in elite basketball players. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2013;471(4):1084–91.
Siebenrock KA, Wahab KHA, Werlen S, Kalhor M, Leunig M, Ganz R. Abnormal extension of the femoral head epiphysis as a cause of cam impingement. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2004;418:54–60.
Siffert RS. The growth plate and its affections. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1966;48(3):546–63.
Stulberg SD, Cordell LD, Harris WH, Ramsey PL, MacEwen GD. Unrecognized childhood hip disease: a major cause of idiopathic osteoarthritis of the hip. In: The hip: proceedings of the third open scientific meeting of the hip society. St Louis: Mosby; 1975. p. 212–28.
Sward L, Hellstrom M, Jacobsson B, Peterson L. Back pain and radiologic changes in the thoraco-lumbar spine of athletes. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 1990;15(2):124–9.
Tak I, Weir A, Langhout R, Waarsing JH, Stubbe J, Kerkhoffs G, Agricola R. The relationship between the frequency of football practice during skeletal growth and the presence of a cam deformity in adult elite football players. Br J Sports Med. 2015:49:630–4.
Tannenbaum E, Kopydlowski N, Smith M, Bedi A, Sekiya JK. Gender and racial differences in focal and global acetabular version. J Arthroplasty. 2014;29(2):373–6.
Tayton K. Does the upper femoral epiphysis slip or rotate? J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2007;89(10):1402–6.
Tayton K. The epiphyseal tubercle in adolescent hips. Acta Orthop. 2009;80(4):416–9.
Trueta J. The normal vascular anatomy of the human femoral head during growth. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1957;39-B(2):358–94.
Trueta J, Amato VP. The vascular contribution to osteogenesis. III. Changes in the growth cartilage caused by experimentally induced ischaemia. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1960;42-B:571–87.
Trueta J, Little K. The vascular contribution to osteogenesis. II. Studies with the electron microscope. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1960;42-B:367–76.
Trueta J, Morgan JD. The vascular contribution to osteogenesis. I. Studies by the injection method. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1960;42-B:97–109.
Trueta J, Trias A. The vascular contribution to osteogenesis. IV. The effect of pressure upon the epiphysial cartilage of the rabbit. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1961;43-B:800–13.
Tucker FR. Arterial supply to the femoral head and its clinical importance. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1949;31B(1):82–93.
Wertheimer LG, Lopes Sde L. Arterial supply of the femoral head. A combined angiographic and histological study. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1971;53(3):545–56.
Wolff J. The law of bone remodeling. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer; 1986.
Yanke AB, Khair MM, Stanley R, Walton D, Lee S, Bush-Joseph CA, Espinosa Orias AA, Inoue N, Nho SJ. Sex differences in patients with CAM deformities with femoroacetabular impingement: 3-dimensional computed tomographic quantification. Arthroscopy. 2015;31(12):2301–6.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Jónasson, P.S., Ayeni, O.R., Karlsson, J., Sansone, M., Baranto, A. (2017). Physiology of the Developing Hip and Pathogenesis of Femoroacetabular Impingement. In: Ayeni, O., Karlsson, J., Philippon, M., Safran, M. (eds) Diagnosis and Management of Femoroacetabular Impingement. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32000-7_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32000-7_7
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-31998-8
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-32000-7
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)