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Invertebrates in Groundwater Springs and Seeps

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Invertebrates in Freshwater Wetlands

Abstract

Springs and seeps are common features of many global landscapes, representing points of emergence of the vast, underground resources of freshwater on our planet. Most are characterized by very low variability in their discharge, water temperature and chemical signature, resulting in benign environments that support a high number and diversity of rare, endemic and relict species. This chapter reviews springs and seeps as habitats for a wide variety of invertebrate life and provides a provisional, global summary of the genera that live in them. The components of spring and seep faunas are compared and discussed in the context of whether they represent stochastic assemblages or true communities.

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Acknowledgments

I thank colleagues past and present who have shared my interest in springs and their invertebrate faunas, but most notably the late Dr. Lazare Botosaneanu, Dr. Hugh Danks, Dr. Oliver Gathmann, Dr. Dirk Hinterlang, Dr. Ian Hogg, the late Prof. Noel Hynes, Dr. Nancy Logan, Dr. Ian Smith and Dr. Catherine Yule.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON, Canada

    D. Dudley Williams

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA

    Darold Batzer

  2. Institute of Aquatic Ecology, University of Girona, Girona, Spain

    Dani Boix

Appendix

Appendix

Global summary of the genera of invertebrates recorded from, or presumed to live in, springs and seeps

Taxon/family

Genus

Spring

Seep

Genus habitat, where knowna

Region foundb

Sourcec

Porifera

Spongillina

Spongilla

√

 

Occasionally in cold-water and thermal springs

W

1, 2

Hydrozoa

Hydridae

Hydra

√

 

Various lentic and lotic waters, incl. springs

W

3, 4

Turbellaria

Microturbellaria

Largely unident.

√

 

Includes springs and underground waters

W

5

Planariidae

   

Wide variety of freshwater habitats

W

5, 6

Crenobia

√

 

Cool, spring-fed headwater streams

EU

7, 8

Hymanella

√

√

Includes springs and seeps

NA

9

Phagocata

√

√

Montane cold streams, springs and seeps

HO, OL

9, 10

Planaria

√

 

Lentic and slow lotic waters, incl. springs

HO

8, 9

Polycelis

√

 

Cool freshwaters, including springs

HO, OL

9

Kenkiidae

Sphalloplana

√

 

Typically in caves, but also in springs

NA

9, 11

Dendrocoelidae

Dendrocoelopsis

√

 

Eurythermic and stenothermic, incl. springs

HO, AS

9, 12

Macrocotyla

√

 

Typically in caves, but also in springs

NA

9, 13

Procotyla

√

 

Ponds, lakes, streams and springs

HO

9

Dugesiidae

Dugesia

√

 

Ponds, lakes, streams, springs, cave pools

HO, AT, AU, OL

7

Dimarcusidae

Mitchellia

?

 

Cool cave pools in tropics

OL

14

Gastrotricha

   

Freshwater and semiterrestrial habitats

W

15

Chaetonotida

   

Inhabit freshwater and marine environments

  

Chaetonotidae

Chaetonotus

√

 

Marine and freshwater, also interstitial forms

W

16–18

Heterolepidoderma

√

 

Marine and freshwater, also interstitial forms

W

16–18

Macrodasyida

Redudasys

√

 

Marine, also in deep beach freshwater springs

PA, NT

16, 19

Rotifera

   

Abundant in interstitial waters, also in bogs

W

20

Proalidae

Proales

√

 

Parasitic in algae (Vaucheria)

HO, AT, OL

21, 22

Lindiidae

Lindia

√

 

Variable salinity pools, ditches, hot springs

HO, OL

22–24

Euchlanidae

Dipleuchlanis

√

√

Habitats include spring/seep complexes

HO, OL, NT, AT

22, 24

Flosculariidae

Ptygura

√

√

Marine and freshwater, spring/seep complexes

HO, OL

22, 24, 25

Dicranophoridae

Wierzejskiella

√

√

Marine and freshwater, spring/seep complexes

HO, OL

22, 24, 26

Nematoda

   

None restricted to cold subterranean waters

W

27

Aphelenchoididae

Aphelenchoides

√

 

Primarily plant pathogens, also in hot springs

W

27, 28

Aphelenchidae

Aphelenchus

√

 

Primarily soil fungus pathogens, hot springs

W

27–30

Dorylaimidae

Dorylaimus

√

 

In soils and freshwater, also in hot springs

W

27, 30

Chromodoridae

Euchromodora

√

 

Many marine species, but also in hot springs

W

27

Monhysteridae

Monhystera

√

 

Range of freshwaters, including hot springs

W

27, 30, 31

Plectidae

Plectus

√

 

Range of freshwaters, including hot springs

W

27, 30, 31

Tylocephalus

√

 

Includes thermal soils and hot springs

EU, AU

27, 32

Rhabdolaimidae

Rhabdolaimus

√

 

Includes freshwater mineral and hot springs

W

27, 30, 33

Xyalidae

Theristus

√

 

Marine sediments, also freshwater hot springs

W

27, 34

Oligochaeta

   

Freshwaters sediments, some in groundwater

W

35

Aeolosomatidae

Aeolosoma

√

 

Includes karst springs

NA, OL

3, 36

Tubificidae

Ilyodrilus

√

 

Lakes and rivers, including karst springs

HO

3

Limnodrilus

√

 

Various freshwaters, including karst springs

W

3, 36, 37

Varichaetadrilus

√

 

Includes karst springs

HO

3

(Naidinae)

Allonais

√

 

Lentic/lotic waters, also karst springs

W

35, 36

Dero

 

√

Lentic and lotic waters, peat mound springs

W

38, 39

Pristina

 

√

Lentic and lotic waters, peat mound springs

W

39, 40

Stylaria

√

 

Includes karst springs

NA

3

Haplotaxidae

Haplotaxis

√

√

Primarily in groundwater

HO, OL

35, 36

Enchytraeidae

Unident.

  

Includes karst springs

NA

3

Phreodrilidae

Unident.

√

 

Includes groundwaters and springs

EQ

36

Lumbriculidae

Phagodrilus

√

√

Cool freshwaters, including springs and seeps

NA

35

Gastropoda

   

Many endemics in springs and groundwater

W

41

Melanopsidae

Melanopsis

√

 

Fresh- and brackish waters, including springs

PA, AT, AU, PAC

41, 42

Assimineidae

Unident.

√

 

Estuarine and freshwaters, including springs

W

41

Hydrobiidae

Fontigens

√

 

Cool , shallow springs

NA

10

Various

√

√

Some hydrobiids endemic to springs and seeps

NA

43

Pomatiopsidae

Various

√

 

Freshwaters, incl. amphibious; saline springs

W

41

Planorbidae

Various

√

 

Lentic and slow lotic freshwaters, incl. springs

W

41

Gyraulus

 

√

Lentic/slow lotic, raised-peat mound springs

HO, AU, OL

39, 41, 44

Physidae

Physa

√

 

Lentic/slow lotic, incl. cold and hot springs

W

3, 41

Physella

√

 

Rivers, ponds, lakes, marshes, springs

HO

3, 41

Bivalvia

Sphaeriidae

Pisidium

√

 

The only sphaeriids in springs

W

10, 45

Tardigrada

   

Freshwater species not well known

W

46

Halechiniscidae

Styraconyx hallasi

√

 

Marine species, also in a freshwater spring

GR

46

Eohypsibiidae

Bertolanius

√

 

Freshwater sediments, damp bryophytes

W

46

Eohypsibius

√

 

Freshwater and terrestrial, including springs

HO, AS, GR

46

Isohypsibius

√

 

Soil, leaf litter, moss, also spring margins

HO, AU, PO, OL

46, 47

Hypsibiidae

Microhypsibius

√

 

Freshwater, including springs

HO, GR, AS

46

Murrayidae

Murrayon

√

 

Soil and moss, also in springs

NA, GR, AS, OL

46, 48

Crustacea

Ostracoda

   

Significant occurrence in hypogean habitats

W

49, 50

Candonidae

Candocyprinotus

√

 

Common in springs and lacustrine habitats

NA

51

Candona

√

√

Includes spring/seep habitats

NA, OL

51–53

Cypria

√

 

Ponds, lakes, streams and springs

HO, AS, OL

51, 53, 54

Fabaeformiscandona

√

 

Lakes, ponds, canals, rice fields, springs

W

51, 55

Nannocandona

√

 

Springs supported by deep aquifers

HO

50

Schellencandona

√

 

Springs supported by deep aquifers

HO, OL

50, 56

Cyprididae

Cavernocypris

√

√

Subterranean waterbodies

HO, AS

52, 57

Chlamydotheca

√

 

Warm springs and temporary pools

HO, NT

52, 58

Cyclocypris

√

 

Streams, wetlands, springs

HO

50, 51

Cypricercus

√

 

Permanent and temporary ponds, springs

HO, NT, OL

50, 51

Cypridopsis

√

 

Oligo- to eutrophic waters, springs, wells

W

51, 53, 59

Cypris

√

 

Incl. streams, wetlands, hot and cold springs

W

50, 56

Herpetocypris

√

 

Stagnant waters, lakes, slow lotic, springs

HO, NT, AT, OL

52, 54

Heterocypris

√

√

Lakes, temporary ponds, ephemeral springs

HO, OL

52, 54

Potamocypris

√

 

Vegetated ponds and pools, also hot springs

HO, AS, AT, OL

50, 54

Psychrodromus

√

 

Highest diversity in springs

HO

52, 54

Scottia

√

 

Wet leaf litter around spring sources

HO, OL

51, 60

Thermopsis

√

 

Hot springs

NA

50

Darwinulidae

Microdarwinula

√

 

Springs, seeps and river gravel; semiterrestrial

HO, AT, OL, NT

51, 61

Ilyocyprididae

Ilyocypris

√

 

Lakes, shallow permanent waters, springs

HO, OL, AU, AT

51, 56

Diplostraca

   

Lentic and slow lotic waters, also groundwater

W

62

Sididae

Diaphanosoma

√

 

Planktonic in lakes, but also in hot springs

NA, OL, AU, AT

63

Latonopsis

√

 

Lakes , ponds, temporary waters, hot springs

HO, OL, AU, AT

63, 64

Chydoridae

Alona

√

 

Lakes, also wet Sphagnum mats and hot springs

HO, AS, OL, NT

63

Daphniidae

Daphnia

√

 

Most lentic waters, also hot springs

W

63

Copepoda

   

Most freshwaters, significant in hypogean

W

49, 65

Cyclopoida

Acanthocyclops

√

√

Ponds, lakes, groundwater and springs/seeps

W

65, 66

Diacyclops

√

√

Surface and subterranean waters, incl. springs

W

65

Eucyclops

√

 

Surface and subterranean waters, incl. springs

W

65, 66

Itocyclops

√

 

Stygobionts, also in wells, marshes and springs

HO

65

Macrocyclops

√

 

Freshwaters, incl. wetlands and springs

W

65, 66

Megacyclops

 

√

Freshwaters , including wells and springs

HO, OL

65, 66

Mesocyclops

√

 

Surface and subterranean waters, incl. springs

W

65

Paracyclops

√

 

Freshwater, estuaries, bromeliads, springs

W

65, 66

Stolonicyclops

 

√

Mountain seeps

NA

65

Harpacticoida

   

Marine and freshwater, typically benthic

  

Phyllognathopodidae

Phyllognathopus

√

 

Eurytopic incl. springs, hyporheic

W

65

Ameiridae

Stygonitocrella

√

 

Freshwater caves, groundwater, wells, springs

HO, NT

65

Canthocamptidae

Attheyella

√

√

Surface and groundwaters, incl. hyporheic zone

W

65, 67

Bryocamptus

√

√

Surface and groundwaters, cave pools, springs

CB, NA

65

Elaphoidella

√

√

Stygobionts, groundwater and spring-fed pools

W

65

Maraenobiotus

√

 

Cold stenothermal, in groundwater and springs

CB, NA

65

Moraria

√

√

Cave waters, groundwater, springs, wet moss

CB, NA

65

Isopoda: Asellidae

Asellus

√

 

Epigean, hypogean, hyporheic, crenophilic

HO, AS, OL

49, 68

Caecidotea

√

 

Epigean, hypogean (groundwater, springs)

NA

3

Lirceus

√

 

Lakes, temp. ponds, streams, caves, springs

NA

49

Sphaeromatidae

Thermosphaeroma

√

 

Hot and thermal springs

NA

69

Stenasellidae

Stenasellus

?

 

Subterranean , incl. wells and cave waters

OL

70

Anthuridae

Stygocyathura

?

 

Cave waters

W

70

Amphipoda

   

Chiefly marine, but ~1900 freshwater species

 

Crangonyctidae

Bactrurus

√

 

Springs via predominantly hypogean habitats

NA

71

Crangonyx

√

 

Springs via predominantly hypogean habitats

HO

71

Stygobromus

√

√

Cave pools, groundwater, seeps, springs

HO, EU, AS

71, 72

Synurella

√

 

Freshwater subterranean habitats, incl. springs

HO, EU, AS

71, 73

Bogidiellidae

Indogidiella

?

 

Subterranean, including wells and cave waters

OL

74

Gammaridae

Gammarus

√

 

Eurytopic ; freshwater and marine, incl. springs

HO

10, 49

Decapoda

   

Surface waters, subterranean streams and pools

W

75

Palaemonidae

Palaemonetes

√

 

Canals, caves, subterranean waters, springs

HO, AS

75

Cambaridae

Cambarellus alvarezi

√

 

Exterminated from its single spring location

NA

75

Fallicambarus

 

√

Semiterrestrial, often within seepage areas

NA

75

Potamidae

Cerberusa

?

 

Cave-dwelling crabs

OL

76

Acari: Hydrachnidia

   

Commonly found in freshwaters

W

77

Hydrovolziidae

Hydrovolzia

√

√

Includes moss around helocrenes

NA, B

77, 78

Piersigiidae

Piersigia

√

√

Includes moss around helocrenes

NA, B

77, 78

Apheviderulicidae

Apheviderulix

√

 

Springs

NA

77

Hydryphantidae

Almuerzothyas

√

 

Springs

NA

77, 78

Columbiathyas

√

 

Springs

NA

77, 78

Cowichania

√

 

Hyporheic zone

NA

77, 78

Cyclothyas

√

 

Interstitial

NA

77, 78

Euthyas

√

√

Includes vegetation mats around helocrenes

NA

78

Panisopsis

√

√

Includes vegetation mats around helocrenes

NA, B

77, 78

Panisus

√

√

Includes vegetation mats around helocrenes

NA, B

77, 78

Parathyasella

√

 

Springs and riffles in cold streams

NA, B

77, 78

Tadjikothyas

√

√

Includes vegetation mats around helocrenes

NA

78

Tartarothyas

√

√

Includes vegetation mats around helocrenes

NA

77, 78

Thyas

√

√

Includes vegetation mats around helocrenes

NA

78

Thyasella

√

√

Includes in helocrene vegetation, interstitial

NA

77, 78

Thyopsella

√

√

Includes vegetation mats around helocrenes

NA, B

77, 78

Thyopsis

√

√

Includes vegetation mats around helocrenes

NA

77, 78

Todothyas

√

 

Springs and riffles in cold streams

NA, B

77, 78

Trichothyas

 

√

Hygropetric and trickle zones

NA

77, 78

Wandesia

√

 

Interstitial

NA

77, 78

Thermacaridae

Thermacarus

√

 

Hot springs

NA

77, 78

Sperchontidae

Sperchon

√

√

Includes helocrenes

NA

77, 78

Teutoniidae

Teutonia

√

 

Cold stenothermic pools and springs

NA, B

77, 78

Rutripalpidae

Rutripalpus

√

 

Limnocrenes

NA, B

77, 78

Anisitsiellidae

Bandakia

√

 

Includes hyporheic zone

NA, B, OL

77–79

Bandakiopsis

√

√

Includes vegetation mats around helocrenes

NA

77, 78

Cookacarus

√

 

Interstitial

NA

77, 78

Oregonacarus

√

√

Seepage water habitats

NA

77, 78

Utaxatax

√

√

Includes interstitial and helocrene habitats

NA

77, 78

Lebertiidae

Estelloxus

√

 

Primarily in cold springs

NA

77

Lebertia

√

 

Wide range of freshwater habitats

NA

77, 78

Scutolebertia

√

 

Primarily in cold springs

NA

77

Torrenticolidae

Testudacarus

√

 

Includes interstitial

NA, B

78

Torrenticola

√

 

Includes interstitial

NA, B, OL

77–79

Limnesiidae

Tyrrellia

√

√

Includes helocrenes

NA, B

77, 78

Hygrobatidae

Atractides

√

 

Wide range of freshwater habitats

NA, B

77, 78

Hygrobetes

√

 

Wide range of freshwater habitats

NA, B, OL

77–79

Feltriidae

Feltria

√

√

Includes helocrenes

NA, B

77, 78

Pionidae

Forelia

√

 

Lentic including limnocrenes

NA, B

78

Nautarachna

√

 

Springs and cold streams

NA

77, 78

Neotiphys

√

 

Lentic including limnocrenes

NA, B

77, 78

Piona

√

 

Lentic including limnocrenes

NA, B

77, 78

Pionacercus

√

 

Largely limnocrenes

NA, B

77, 78

Pionopsis

√

 

Lentic including limnocrenes

NA, B

77, 78

Pseudofeltria

√

√

Includes helocrenes

NA

77, 78

Tiphys

√

 

Lentic including limnocrenes

NA

77, 78

Arturidae

Arturus

√

 

Surface and hyporheic

NA

77, 78

Estellacarus

√

 

Lentic including limnocrenes

NA, B

77, 78

Ljania

√

 

Lotic including rheocrenes

NA, B

77, 78

Neobrachypoda

√

 

Lentic including limnocrenes

NA, B

78

Woolastookia

√

 

Lentic and lotic including springs

NA, B

77, 78

Momoniidae

Cyclomomonia

√

 

Rheocrenes, hyporheic zone

NA

77, 78

Stygomomonia

√

 

Rheocrenes, hyporheic zone

NA

77, 78

Nudomideopsidae

Nudomideopsis

√

√

Hyporheic, moss mats in helocrenes

NA, B, AU

77, 78

Paramideopsis

√

 

Rheocrenes, hyporheic zone

NA, B

77, 78

Mideopsidae

Mideopsis

√

 

Wide range of freshwaters, incl. hyporheic

NA, B

77, 78

Chappuisididae

Chappuisides

√

 

Hyporheic, rheocrenes

NA

77, 78

Uchidastygacaridae

Uchidastygacarus

√

 

Hyporheic, rheocrenes

NA

77, 78

Neoacaridae

Neoacarus

√

√

Helocrenes, rheocrenes, hyporheic

NA, B

77, 78

Acalyptonotidae

Acalyptonotus

√

√

Helocrenes, rheocrenes, limnocrenes

NA, B

77, 78

Paenecalyptonotus

√

√

Helocrenes

NA, B

77, 78

Athienemanniidae

Chelomideopsis

√

√

Moss mats in helocrenes, rheocrenes

NA, B

77, 78

Platyhydracarus

√

 

Rheocrenes , hyporheic

NA

77, 78

Laversiidae

Laversia

√

√

Helocrenes, rheocrenes

NA, B

77, 78

Arrenuridae

Arrenurus

√

√

Various freshwater habitats incl. interstitial

NA, AU, OL

39, 77, 78

Halacaridae

Copidognathus

√

 

Cool springs

EU

80

Halacarellus

√

 

Cool springs

EU

80

Trhypochthoniidae

Mucronothrus nasalis

√

 

Cold, spring-fed waters and cold bogs

W

81

Collembola

   

Damp terrestrial habitats and soils

W

82

Isotomidae

Isotomurus

 

√

Still-water surfaces including spring pools

W

82

Poduridae

Podurus

 

√

Still-water surfaces including spring pools

W

82

Sminthuridae

Sminthurus

 

√

Still-water surfaces including spring pools

W

82, 83

Ephemeroptera

   

Nymphs in virtually all types of freshwater

W

84

Baetidae

Baetis

√

 

Various running waters, including springs

W

85, 86

Ephemerellidae

Serratella

√

 

Swift, rocky streams, also spring headwaters

HO, OL

85, 86

Heptageniidae

Ecdyonurus

√

 

River/stream riffles, also spring headwaters

HO, OL

86, 87

Epeorus

√

 

Lotic, occasionally into spring headwaters

HO, OL, NT

86, 87

Rhithrogena

√

 

Swift, rocky streams, occasionally in springs

HO, OL

86, 87

Stenonema

√

 

Lotic, occasionally into spring headwaters

NA

3

Odonata

   

Nymphs in most lentic and lotic freshwaters

NT, OL

84

Anisoptera

   

Approx. 2900 species in various freshwaters

 

Cordulegastridae

Cordulegaster

√

√

Seeps and springs in marshes, thermal springs

HO

88, 89

Petaluridae

Tachopteryx

√

√

Wetland seepage areas, bogs, semiterrestrial

NA

83

Gomphidae

Lanthus

√

 

Clear streams with strong current, springs

NA, OL

83

Ophiogomphus

√

 

Rheophilic, also includes thermal springs

HO, AS

88

Stylogomphus

√

 

Rocky, spring-fed woodland streams

NA, AS, OL

83

Libellulidae

Erythemis

√

 

Ponds, lakes and marshes; thermal springs

NA, NT

88

Libellula

√

 

Ponds, lakes and marshes; thermal springs

HO, AS, OL, NT

88

Neurothemis

 

√

Ponds, lakes, streams, peat mound springs

AS, OL, AU

39

Orthemis

√

 

Muddy ditches, marshes, thermal springs

NA, NT

88, 90

Orthetrum

 

√

Ponds, streams, seepage areas, mound springs

HO, OL, AT, AU

39

Pantala

√

 

Ponds, riverine pools, thermal springs

NA, AT, OL, NT

88

Trapezostigma

 

√

Raised-peat mound springs

AU

39

Corduliidae

Somatochlora

√

 

Cool waters running through wetlands

HO, OL

83

Hemicorduliidae

Hemicordulia

 

√

Upland lakes and stream pools, mound springs

EU, AU

39

Zygoptera

   

Approx. 2800 species in various freshwaters

 

Calopterygidae

Hetaerina

√

 

Streams and rivers, also thermal springs

HO, NT

88, 91

Coenagrionidae

Amphiagrion

√

 

Lakes, marshes, slow streams, thermal springs

NA

88

Apanisagrion

√

 

Slow streams in woodlands

NA, NT

83

Argia

√

 

Range of lotic waters, incl. thermal springs

NA, NT

88, 92

Chromagrion

√

 

Diverse, often eutrophic, slow-water habitats

NA

83

Ischnura

√

√

Slow-water habitats, thermal and cold springs

HO, AT, NT, AU

83, 88, 93

Lestidae

Lestes

√

 

Peatland ponds, thermal springs

HO, NT, AT, OL

88, 94

Megapodagrionidae

Rhinagrion

√

 

Includes leaves in trickles from forest springs

OL

95

Plecoptera

   

Clean, montane or spring-fed lowland streams

W

84, 96

Leuctridae

Despaxia

√

√

Spring-fed streams, spring seeps

NA, OL

83

Megaleuctra

√

√

Spring outflows, seeps

NA, OL

83, 97

Nemouridae

Amphinemura

√

 

Running waters, including spring streams

HO, OL

95, 97

 

Soyedina

 

√

Spring-fed streams, springs

NA

83

Chloroperlidae

Unident.

√

 

Rivers and streams, some hyporheic dwellers

HO, OL

10, 98

Peltoperlidae

Soliperla

√

 

Splash zone of small streams and springs

NA

97

Viehoperla

 

√

Splash zone of small spring seeps

NA

97

Perlodidae

Oconoperla

 

√

Splash zone of small spring seeps

NA

97

Hemiptera: Saldidae

Saldula

√

√

Riparian and littoral, thermal springs, seeps

W

88, 99

Mesoveliidae

Mesovelia

√

√

Vegetation in stagnant/slow waters, springs

W

3, 39

Corixidae

Micronecta

√

√

Permanent lakes, peat mound and hot springs

PA, OL, AT, AU

39, 100, 101

Sigara

√

 

Weedy pools, limnocrenes and helocrenes

W

101, 102

Trichocorixa

√

 

Standing/slow waters, karst springs

HO, AT, NT, PAC

3, 103

Unident.

√

 

Thermal springs

NA

88

Notonectidae

Anisops

√

√

Mound springs, hot springs, vegetated springs

W

39, 100, 104

Naucoridae

Ambrysus

√

 

Clean streams , lake margins, thermal springs

NA, NT

105

Limnocoris

√

 

Warm springs, streams and pools in tropics

NA, NT

83, 106

Belostomatidae

Belostoma

  

Weedy ponds, river margins, hot springs

W

107, 105

Diplonychus

 

√

Shallow vegetated waters, peat mound springs

AU, AT, OL, AS

39

Ochteridae

Ochterus

 

√

Semiaquatic, seeps on exposed rock surfaces

W

83

Neuroptera

Corydalidae

Neohermes

 

√

Lotic leaf litter, temporary streams, seeps

NA

83

Sialidae

Sialis

√

 

Slow freshwaters with silty substrates

HO, AS, AU

10, 108

Coleoptera

Hydroscaphidae

Hydroscapha

√

√

Gravel of rivers and seepages, thermal springs

HO, OL, AT NT

83, 109

Haliplidae

Haliplus

√

 

Vegetated ponds, lakes, slow-flowing streams

HO, OL, AU

110

Dytiscidae

Agabinus spp.

√

 

Includes montane streams and coastal springs

NA

110, 111

Agabus spp.

√

 

Wetland generalists, springs, small ponds

HO, AT, NT

110, 111

Allopachria

√

 

Small forest streams and springs

OL

112,

Comaldessus

√

 

Stygobiontic dytiscid found in springs

NA

83, 113

Eretes

 

√

Temporary ponds, raised-peat mound springs

W

39

Hydroglyphus

 

√

Raised-peat mound springs, pools, wells

AU, AT, OL

39

Hydroporus spp.

√

√

Generalists, also springs and temporary ponds

HO

110, 111

Lacconectus

√

 

Small forested streams and springs

OL

112

Liodessus

√

 

Ponds, wetlands, weedy streams, springs

W

110

Microdytes

√

 

Small forested streams and springs

OL

112

Potamonectes spp.

√

 

Cold waters, high-altitude waters, springs

HO

110, 111

Hydraenidae

Hydraena spp.

√

 

Highly diverse genus, in various freshwaters

HO, OL, AS

112, 113

Ochthebius spp.

√

 

Wet mud and pool margins, small waterbodies

W

110

Rhantus spp.

√

 

Lentic/lotic waters incl. springs, saline ponds

NA

110

Hydrophilidae

Berosus spp.

 

√

Lentic and slow lotic waters, mound springs

W

39, 114

Cymbiodyta spp.

√

 

Shallow waters, stream margins, wet leaf litter

HO

110

Enochrus

√

 

Still waters rich in vegetation, small streams

W

110

Helophorus

√

 

Vegetated lentic and slow lotic wetland habitats

HO

110

Paracymus

 

√

Wetland pools, salt marshes, mound springs

W

39, 115

Paranacaena

 

√

Small streams, raised-peat mound springs

AU

39

Sperchopsis

√

 

Margins of cold, clear, fast streams

NA

110

Tropisternus spp.

√

 

Pioneer species in marshes/flooded grasslands

NA, NT

110

Scirtidae

Elodes

√

√

In vegetation alongside rivers and streams

W

83

Sacodes

 

√

Various lentic and slow lotic waters

W

83

Unident.

 

√

Raised-peat mound springs

AU

39

Elmidae

Heterelmis

√

 

Riffle areas of shallow streams, springs

NA, NT

116

Stenelmis

√

 

Riffle areas of shallow streams, warm springs

HO, OL, AT

112, 117

Unident.

√

 

Riffle areas of shallow streams, springs

NA

10

Hydrochidae

Hydrochus

√

√

Streams, mound springs, limnocrenes

W

39, 118

Dryopidae

Helichus

√

 

Springs and cold spring-fed streams

NA, NT, OL

110, 119

Stygoparnus

√

 

Cave springs

NA

83

Lutrochidae

Lutrochus

√

 

Mineral springs, travertine deposit streams

NA, NT

83, 110

Chrysomelidae

Donacia

√

 

Lakes and wetlands, often with bur-reeds

HO

110

Plateumaris spp.

√

 

Wetlands, attached to aquatic plant rhizomes

HO

110

Diptera: Nematocera

   

Global true flies, larvae are typically aquatic

  

Deuterophlebiidae

Deuterophlebia

√

 

Typical of cold , torrential mountain streams

NA, AS

120

Nymphomyiidae

Nymphomyia

?

 

Small, stable temperature (<15 °C) streams

NA, AS

121

Tipulidae

Brachypremna

√

√

Soil along stream margins, springs and seeps

NA, NT

83, 122

Dactylolabis

 

√

Rocky seeps, splash zones of streams/springs

HO

83, 123

Leptotarsus

√

 

Margins and shallow areas of small streams

W

83

Pedicia

√

√

Stream margins, springs, peatbogs, seepages

HO, OL

83, 124

Thaumastoptera

√

√

Fine sediments in streams, springs, seeps

W

83, 125

Tipula

 

√

Along stream margins and in seepage areas

W

126

Ptychopteridae

Unident.

√

√

Vegetated ponds , slow streams, springs

W, not NT, AU

83, 127

Psychodidae

Unident.

 

√

Nutrient-rich waters, incl. peat mound springs

W

39, 128

Dixidae

Unident.

√

 

Lentic waters rich in marginal vegetation

W

10

Chaoboridae

Eucorethra

√

 

Lentic/slow lotic waters, incl. springs and bogs

NA

83, 129

Culicidae

Anopheles

 

√

Habitat incl. groundwater, mound springs

W

39, 130

Culex

√

√

Groundwater bodies in northern part of range

W

39, 130

Thaumaleidae

Unident.

 

√

Hygropetric waters (water films on torrents)

W

83, 129

Simuliidae

Unident.

√

 

Fast waters, incl. cold and thermal springs

W

88

Simulium urbanum

 

√

Ditch-like se epages

EU

131

Simulium costatum

√

 

Chalk/limestone springs

EU

131

Ceratopogonidae

Bezzia

√

√

Shallow, lentic waters; hot and mound springs

W

39, 83

Culicoides

 

√

Wetland pool/stream margins, mound springs

W

39, 132

Dasyhelea

 

√

Small waterbodies, margins; mound springs

W

39, 133

Forcipomyia

√

 

Various standing waters, incl. warm springs

W

83

Monohelea

 

√

Wetland pool/stream margins, mound springs

W

39, 133

Chironomidae

   

>5000 species of chiefly aquatic dipterans

  

Podonominae

Boreochlus

√

√

Among moss in springs

HO

134, 135

Paraboreochlus

√

 

Among moss in springs

HO

134

Parochlus

√

 

Includes cool springs

HO, NT, AU

83, 134, 135

Trichotanypus

√

 

Among mosses

HO

134, 135

Tanypodinae

Ablabesmyia

√

 

Eurytopic and cosmopolitan, including springs

W

136, 137

Brundiniella

√

 

Cool brooks and springs

NA, OL

136, 137

Conchapelopia

√

 

Stenothermic-warm eurythermic lotic and lentic

HO, OL, AT, NT

135, 137

Krenopelopia

√

√

Cold stenothermic, especially springs and seeps

HO, OL

136, 137

Larsia

√

 

Cold stenothermic, springs, ditches, littoral

W

136, 137

Macropelopia

√

 

Fine sedim ents in springs, brooks and bogs

HO, AS, NT

136, 137

Natarsia

√

 

Cool streams/springs, littoral of cool lakes

HO, OL

136, 137

Pentaneurella

√

√

Springs and spring-fed streams

EU

136, 137

Procladius

 

√

Lentic or slow-flowing waters, mound springs

W

39, 136

Rheomyia

√

 

Streams and springs

NA

83, 136

Trissopelopia

√

 

Cold stenothermic lotic and lentic waters

HO

136

Zavrelimyia

√

 

Cold stenothermic, typically springs

HO, OL, NT

136, 137

Diamesinae

Diamesa

√

 

Cold adapted, especially springs, hygropetric

HO, OL, AT

137, 138

Protanypus

√

√

Oligotrophic waters, including springs

HO

135, 138

Pseudodiamesia

√

√

Various, incl. springs and oligotrophic lakes

HO, OL

135, 137, 138

Pseudokiefferiella

√

 

Mountain springs, incl. the hygropetric zone

HO

83, 138

Sympotthastia

√

 

Cool flowing water including springs

HO, OL

138

Syndiamesa

√

 

Springs and small streams incl. hygropetric

HO, OL

137, 138

Prodiamesinae

Compteromesa

 

√

Small streams and springs

NA, OL

83, 137

Prodiamesa

√

 

Shallow freshwaters including springs

HO

135, 137, 139

Orthocladiinae

Antillocladius

 

√

Seepage areas

NA, NT

140

Brillia

√

√

Cold stenothermic lotic, littoral and hygropetric

HO, NT, OL

135, 140, 141

Cardiocladius

√

 

Fast waters, thin water films on waterfalls

W

135, 140, 141

Chaetocladius

√

√

Frequently semiterrestrial, muddy springs

HO, AT

135, 140, 141

Compterosmittia

 

√

Mostly in phytotelmata

HO, AT, OL

83, 137

Corynoneura

√

√

Eurytopic and cosmopolitan, including springs

W

135, 137, 141

Cricotopus

√

 

Wide variety of waterbodies includi ng springs

W

135, 140, 141

Diplocladius

√

√

Cool waters, including springs

HO

135, 140, 141

Doithrix

√

√

Margins of streams and seepage areas

HO

83, 135, 137

Dratnalia

√

 

Within trichopteran larval/pupal cases, springs

EU

140

Eukiefferiella

√

√

Eurythermic in flowing waters, also in springs

W

135, 137, 140

Georthocladius

 

√

Terrestrial or semiterrestrial, helocrene seeps

HO

137, 140

Orthocladiinae

Heleniella

√

 

Cold stenothermic rheophiles

HO, OL

140, 141

Heterotrissocladius

√

√

Wide array of waterbodies, including springs

HO, NT

135, 141

Hydrobaenus

√

√

Various oligotrophic waterbodies, incl. springs

HO

135, 140

Krenosmittia

√

 

Springs and hygropetric, also rivers and lakes

HO, AT, OL

135, 137, 140

Limnophyes

√

√

Semiterrestrial, also springs and seepages

W

135, 137, 140

Metriocnemus

√

√

Various waters incl. springs and hygropetric

HO, AT, NT

135, 137, 140

Orthocladius

√

√

Lotic and len tic waters, springs, seepage areas

NH

135, 137, 140

Parachaetocladius

√

 

Cold stenothermic, esp. springs and helocrenes

HO

135, 137, 140

Paracladius

√

 

Lotic and lentic waters, including springs

HO

135, 137, 140

Parakiefferiella

√

 

Lotic and lentic waters, including springs

W

135, 137, 140

Parametriocnemus

√

√

Cold running waters, especially springs

W

135, 137, 140

Paraphaenocladius

√

√

Includes dam p soil adjacent to springs

HO, AT

135, 137, 140

Paratrichocladius

√

√

Some are cold stenotherms in running waters

W

135, 140, 141

Parorthocladius

√

 

Streams and shallow lentic waters, incl. springs

HO, AT

135, 140, 141

Platysmittia

√

 

Running waters

HO

83

Orthocladiinae

Plhudsonia

 

√

Streams

HO

83

Psectrocladius

√

√

Lotic and lentic waters, incl. boggy seepages

W

135, 140, 141

Pseudorthocladius

 

√

Spring-fed streams often in moss, hygropetric

HO, AT

140

Pseudosmittia

 

√

Incl. semiterrestrial species, splash zones

W

141, 140, 135

Psilometriocnemus

√

√

Damp soil , especially around springs and seeps

NA

140

Rheocricotopus

√

√

Rheophilic, including springs

W, but not NT

135, 140, 141

Saetheriella

?

 

Running waters

HO

83

Stilocladius

√

 

Cold running waters, incl. mountain springs

HO, OL

137, 140

Synorthocladius

√

 

Various lotic and lentic waters, incl. springs

HO, AT

137, 140

Thienemannia

√

 

Often in moss in springs; hygropetric zone

HO

83, 140

Thienemanniella

√

 

Most lotic waters, including springs

W

135, 140, 141

Tvetenia

√

 

Lotic waters, occasionally in springs

HO, OL, AT

135, 140, 141

Zalutschia

 

√

Oligo- and dystrophic lakes, boggy springs

HO

140, 141

Chironominae

Chironomini

Chironomus

√

√

Typical of lentic waters, but incl. springs

W

39, 135, 142

Einfeldia

√

 

Primarily dystrophic waters, also in springs

HO, OL

135, 137, 142

Glyptotendipes

√

 

Detritus-rich shallow waters, also in springs

HO, OL, AT

135, 142

Polypedilum spp.

√

√

Most lentic and lotic waterbodies, incl. springs

W

39, 135, 142

Tanytarsini

Cladotanytarsus

√

 

Eurytopic genus, incl. hot springs and brackish

W

142

Krenopsectra

√

 

Cold ste nothermic in montane regions, springs

HO

142, 143

Micropsectra

√

√

Wide range; hygropetric and thermal springs

HO

142

Neostempellina

√

 

Running waters

HO, AT

83, 137

Neozavrelia

√

 

Cold stenothermic, incl. springs and hygropetric

HO, OL, AU

137, 142

Paratanytarsus

√

 

Eurytopic genus, occasionally in springs

W

135, 137, 142

Stempellina

√

 

Eurytopic genus, incl. cold and thermal springs

W

137, 142

Stempellinella

√

√

Primarily in springs and small streams

HO, OL, AU

135, 137, 142

Tanytarsus

√

√

Eurytopic genus, incl. peat mound springs

W

39, 137, 142

Virgatanytarsus

√

 

Small rivers and lentic littoral, springs

HO, AT

83, 142

Brachycera

   

Globally distributed, some have aquatic larvae

 

Stratiomyidae

Unident.

√

√

Wetlands, margins, thermal and mound springs

W

39, 88

Beris

√

 

In moist moss at spring margins

HO, OL, AS, AU

144

Pelecorhynchidae

Unident.

√

 

Wetlands, water margins

HO, NT, AU

10, 145

Empididae

Hemerodromia

 

√

Well-oxygenated running waters, incl. springs

W

39, 146

Oreothalia

 

√

Water films in seepage areas and on rocks

HO

83

Dolichopodidae

Liancalus

 

√

Algal mats, often on wet rocks at waterfalls

HO

83, 147

Pelastoneurus

 

√

Algal mats and mud substrates, various habitats

HO

83, 148

Unident.

 

√

Raised-peat mound springs

HO

39

Syrphidae

Unident.

 

√

Raised-peat mound springs

HO

39

Sciomyzidae

Unident.

 

√

Snail predators in various waters, incl. seeps

W

10, 149

Ephydridae

Ephydra

√

 

Wetlands, incl. thermal springs and saline pools

HO, OL, AT, NT

83

Ephydrella

√

 

Thermal springs

HO, AU

88, 150

Paracoenia

√

 

Wetlands, also in alkaline thermal springs

HO

83

Scatella

√

 

Thermal springs, incl. hot sulphur springs

HO, OL, AU

83, 151

Unident.

√

 

Geysers

HO

152

Trichoptera

Rhyacophilidae

Rhyacophila spp.

√

 

Lotic on rocks/cobbles, headwaters and springs

W, not AT, NT

153, 154

Philopotamidae

Dolophilodes

 

√

Fast lotic , also mossy seeps on rock surfaces

NA

83

 

Wormaldia

√

 

Fast-flowing sections of rivers and streams

W

155 ROMd

Hydropsychidae

Arctopsyche

√

 

Cold streams, springs esp. boreal/montane

HO, OL

155 ROM

Cheumatopsyche

√

 

Rivers and streams, also in karst springs

W

3, 155

Diplectrona

√

 

Fast-flowing sections of small, cold streams

W, not AT, NT

153, 156

Homoplectra

√

√

Rock face springs and seeps, esp. montane

NA

83, 156

Parapsyche spp.

√

 

Fast lotic, small, cold streams and springs

NH

153, 155

Polycentropodidae

Polycentropus

√

 

Eurytopic incl. temporary ponds, karst springs

W

3, 155

Xiphocentronidae

Cnodocentron

√

 

Spring-fed ponds

NA

83

Glossosomatidae

Anagapetus

√

 

Cool montane headwaters, alpine springs

NA

83, 156

Glossosoma spp.

√

 

On rocks, especially cold rapid streams

HO, OL

153, 155

Hydroptilidae

Hydroptila

√

√

Running waters, also lakes

W

83, 155

Ochrotrichia

√

 

Running waters, incl. water film on rocks

NA, NT

153, 155

Palaeagapetus

√

√

Montane, esp. small, cold seepage springs

NA

83, 156

Lepidostomatidae

Lepidostoma spp.

√

 

Cool lotic incl. springs, littoral zone of lakes

NH

83, 155

Theliopsyche

√

 

Clean gravel areas of spring runs

NA

156 ROM

Apataniidae

Allomyia

√

 

Cold mountain streams

HO

153, 155

Apatania

√

 

Cool lotic , but also lakes at higher altitude

HO, OL

83, 155

Moselyana

√

√

Subalpine forest seeps

NA

83, 157

Phryganeidae

Oligostomis

√

 

Slow-current areas of cool forest streams

HO

156 ROM

Ptilostomis

√

 

Various, incl. temporary pools and cool streams

NA

155 ROM

Brachycentridae

Amiocentrus

√

 

Moderate currents in larger streams

NA

156 ROM

Eobrachycentrus

√

 

Moss in very cold spring runs; montane

NA

156 ROM

Micrasema

√

 

Small, cold streams, usually in moss on rocks

HO

155 ROM

Limnephilidae

Anabolia

√

 

Slow lotic, marshes, temporary pools

HO

153, 155

Asynarchus

√

 

Streams, ponds, temporary pools

HO

155 ROM

Chilostigma

 

√

Associated with spring seeps in wet meadows

HO, OL

83, 158

Chyranda

√

 

Small cold streams in montane regions

NA

153, 155

Clostoeca

 

√

Among leaves in spring seepage areas

NA

156 ROM

Crenophylax

√

 

Springbrooks in the White Mountains, Arizona

NA

83

Cryptochia

√

√

Small, cold spring streams, usually montane

NA

83, 156

Dicosmoecus

√

 

Streams of various sizes

NA, AS

155 ROM

Ecclisocosmoecus

√

 

Small, cold mountain streams

NA

156 ROM

Eocosmoecus

√

 

Small, spring streams, usually montane

NA

83

Frenesia spp.

√

 

Cold streams, spring seepage areas

NA

83

Hesperophylax

√

 

Range of freshwaters: springs, rivers, lakes

NA

153, 155

Homophylax

√

 

Small, cold streams in montane regions

NA

153, 156

Ironoquia

√

 

Temporary waters with extremes of temperature

HO

153, 156

Lenarchus

√

 

Cool small lakes, marshes, temporary pools

HO

155 ROM

Limnephilus spp.

√

 

Range of freshwater habitats, esp. lentic

NH

153, 155

Neophylax spp.

√

 

Confined to running waters

HO, OL

153, 156

Onocosmoecus spp.

√

 

Cool, slow-flowing streams and lake margins

HO

153, 155

Platycentropus

√

 

Eurytopic, from cool streams to warm ponds

NA

153, 156

Pseudostenophylax

√

√

Cool spring runs , small intermittent streams

OL, HO

83, 156

Psychoglypha spp.

√

 

Confined to cool running waters

NA

153, 155

Pycnopsyche

√

 

Cool woodland streams and small rivers

NA

153, 156

Goeridae

Goeracea

 

√

On rocks in small, cold spring streams

NA

83, 155

Lepania

√

√

Cool running waters, incl. seepage springs

NA

83

Rossianidae

Goereilla

√

 

High-gradient headwaters, springs in forests

NA

83

Uenoidae

Farula

 

√

Cold, high-gradient streams, incl. intermittent

NA

83

Neothremma

√

 

Rapid, cool mountain streams

NA

153, 155

Beraeidae

Beraea

√

√

In organic matter around spring seepages

HO, AT, AS

83, 156

Sericostomatidae

Gumaga

√

 

Springbrooks and cold springs

NA, OL

83, 156

Helicopsychidae

Helicopsyche

√

 

Various lotic, incl. thermal springs, littoral

W

83, 159

Odontoceridae

Parthina

√

√

Small, cold springs

NA

83, 156

Molannidae

Molanna

√

 

Lentic and slowly flowing waters

HO, OL

83, 155

Molannodes

√

√

Springs and spring seeps

HO, OL

83, 155

Leptoceridae

Oecetis

√

 

Various lotic and lentic, including karst springs

W

3, 155

  1. aHabitats have been recorded as including cool/cold-water springs unless otherwise stated
  2. bDoes not necessarily indicate that the genus has been found specifically in springs or seeps in all of the regions in which it has been recorded. Listings are according to standard biogeographical regions with the addition of geographical locations where authors have given these in preference to the former (e.g. Europe rather than Western Palaearctic and Asia rather than Oriental/southern Palaearctic). These distribution records may well be incomplete for some taxonomic groups, due to insufficient study in certain regions (e.g. Bryozoa and Ephemeroptera in the Oriental). In contrast, other taxonomic groups may appear overly diverse in some regions due to greater intensity of study effort (e.g. Acari and Trichoptera in the Nearctic). Abbreviations are as follows: ANT Antarctica, AS Asia, AT Afrotropical, AU Australasia, B Boreal, CB Circumboreal, EU European, EQ Equatorial, GR Greenland, HO Holarctic, NA Nearctic, NH Northern Hemisphere, NT Neotropical, OL Oriental, PA Palaearctic, PAC Pacific Ocean Islands, PO polar, W widespread
  3. cKey to reference sources: (1) Manconi and Pronato (2002); (2) Manconi and Pronato (2008); (3) Webb et al. (1996); (4) Jankowski et al. (2008); (5) Kolasa and Tyler (2010); (6) Schockaert et al. (2008); (7) Roca et al. (1992); (8) Reynoldson (1967); (9) Kenk (1972); (10) Gooch and Glazier (1991); (11) Kenk (1977); (12) Kenk (1973); (13) Kenk (1975); (14) Kawakatsu and Mitchell (2004); (15) Strayer et al. (2010); (16) Kisielwski (1990); (17) Balsamo et al. (2004); (18) Nesteruk (2008); (19) Balsamo et al. (2008); (20) Wallace and Snell (2010); (21) Davis and Gworek (1973); (22) Segers (2004); (23) Tzschachel (1979); (24) Wallace et al. (2005); (25) Edmondson (1940); (26) De Smet (1997); (27) Poinar (2010); (28) Ruess et al. (2000); (29) Giannakis and Sanders (1989); (30) Poinar (2004); (31) Abebe et al. (2008); (32) Yeates (1988); (33) Tahseen et al. (2012); (34) Semprucci (2013); (35) Govedich et al. (2010); (36) Pinder and Ohtaka (2004); (37) Kennedy (1965); (38) Kathman and Brinkhurst (1998); (39) DEC (2009); (40) Rodriquez (2002); (41) Strong et al. (2008); (42) Naser (2006); (43) Brown and Lydeard (2010); (44) Panha and Burch (2004); (45) Cummings and Graf (2010); (46) Nelson et al. (2010); (47) Guidetti and Bertolani (2005); (48) Beasley et al. (2006); (49) Pennak (1978); (50) Smith and Delorme (2010); (51) Taylor (1992); (52) Forester (1991); (53) Victor (2004); (54) Meisch (2000); (55) Escrivá et al. (2012); (56) Karanovic (2012); (57) Marmonier et al. (1989); (58) Diaz and Lorpetto (2011); (59) Matzke-Karasz et al. (2007); (60) Smith et al. (2002); (61) Rossetti and Martens (1998); (62) Dodson et al. (2010); (63) Padhye and Kotov (2010); (64) Silva-Briano and Mirabdullayev (2004); (65) Reid and Williamson (2010); (66) Mirabdullayev (2004); (67) Lopes et al. (2001); (68) Sket (1994); (69) Bowman (1985); (70) Bruce (2004); (71) Covich et al. (2010); (72) Culver et al. (2010); (73) Holsinger (1986); (74) Yule (2004b); (75) Hobbs and Lodge (2010); (76) Ng (2004); (77) Smith et al. (2010); (78) Smith (1991); (79) Wiles (2004); (80) Benfatti et al. (1989); (81) Norton et al. (1988); (82) Hopkin (1997); (83) Merritt et al. (2008); (84) Williams and Feltmate (1994); (85) Edmunds et al. (1976); (86) Maiolini et al. (2011); (87) Webb and McCafferty (2008); (88) Pritchard (1991); (89) Hager et al. (2012); (90) Garrison (1991); (91) Garrison (1990); (92) Garrison (2004); (93) Tillyard (1905); (94) Corbet and Brooks (2008); (95) Orr et al. (2004); (96) Zwick (1981); (97) Stewart and Stark (1993); (98) Surdick (1985); (99) Polhemus and Polhemus (2006); (100) Hutchinson (1929); (101) Yang et al. (2004); (102) Kurzatkowska and Zawal (2011); (103) Guareschi et al. (2013); (104) Berchi (2011); (105) Harrison (2013); (106) Nieser et al. (2013); (107) Schuh and Slater (1995); (108) Engel (2004); (109) Cai et al. (2012); (110) Roughley and Larson (1991); (111) Yee (2014); (112) Balke et al. (2004); (113) Freitag (2014); (114) Deler-Hernandez (2013); (115) Ruta (2006); (116) Bowles et al. (2003); (117) Schmude (1999); (118) Mart (2009); (119) Rodriguez and Manzo (2012); (120) Courtney (2004a); (121) Courtney (2004b); (122) Brown (2009); (123) Oosterbroek et al. (2007); (124) Petersen (2006); (125) Courtney (2014); (126) De Jong et al. (2008); (127) Ujvarosi et al. (2011); (128) Arnett (2000); (129) Wagner et al. (2008); (130) Cranston et al. (1987); (131) Bass (1998); (132) Mellor et al. (2000); (133) Worth and Grogan (1988); (134) Brundin (1983); (135) Colbo (1991); (136) Fittkau and Roback (1983); (137) Cranston (2010); (138) Oliver (1983); (139) Saether (1983); (140) Cranston et al. (1983); (141) Cranston (1982); (142) Pinder and Reiss (1983); (143) Moubayed and Langdon (1996); (144) Kovac and Rozkosny (2004); (145) Daniels (2014); (146) Plant and Sinclair (2008); (147) Corpus (1986a); (148) Corpus (1986b); (149) Rozkosny (1984); (150) Dumbleton (2008); (151) Mathis and Wirth (1981); (152) Hogue (1993); (153) Williams and Williams (1987); (154) De Moor and Ivanov (2008); (155) Wiggins and Parker (1997); (156) Wiggins (1977); (157) Anderson (1976); (158) Wiggins (1996); (159) Williams et al. (1983)
  4. dBased on information accompanying specimens held at the Royal Ontario Museum, Canada (ROM)

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Williams, D.D. (2016). Invertebrates in Groundwater Springs and Seeps. In: Batzer, D., Boix, D. (eds) Invertebrates in Freshwater Wetlands. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24978-0_11

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