Abstract
Africa is considered among the most highly vulnerable regions to climate change because of extremes of drought, flooding, inappropriate land tenure systems, overdependence on rainfed agriculture, and widespread poverty. The impact of climate change is moderated by several factors such as access to land, inputs, credit, and markets. Thus, there is a critical need for decision makers at different levels in Africa to develop matching response strategies and policies to reduce vulnerability and foster resilient livelihood systems on a sustainable basis. The smallholder farming communities are inherently the most vulnerable to the negative impacts of climate change, and are always away from the advantage of any emerging opportunities due to resource constraints. About 65 % of national agricultural earnings in this continent is derived from the crop production of staple cereals, particularly maize. Due to shrinkage in cultivated area, production is also about 5–25 %, and the region’s need is more chronic for food and feed. The climate change challenge is aggravated by diminishing soil productivity and the decline in natural resources has affected the livelihood of rural and peri-urban communities. The communities have drawn on their indigenous knowledge systems with the support of local institutions and traditional social safety nets to adopt the various multiple stress factors related to climate change and variability. However, there is still limited empirical evidence on the robustness of these systems in support of social collaborations and resolving conflicts arising from the resource scarcity in the wake of climate change. Comprehensive policy frameworks are therefore required to expand the climate change adaptation horizons beyond the boundaries of current farming systems. For instance, the risk of crop-based enterprises has increased by deteriorating climatic conditions. There is much evidence of multiple stresses characterising the existing poverty traps for the predominantly rural communities, and challenges of chronic food insecurity, but no evidence on how current agriculture and climate change policy frameworks are able to address these multiple stress factors against the increasing risk and uncertainty of agriculture as a source of climate change adaptation. Currently, the majority of the farmers lives beyond the reach of markets, yet agricultural development policies are hinged on the principles of market participation. Transformation of these subsistence farms into commercially oriented and market-driven production systems will effectively call for structural and process changes in knowledge systems, technology development and delivery, institutions, and policies.
The empirical research shows evidence of current and future impacts of climate change and variability on agricultural production systems, and their implications on the resilience of smallholder farming systems currently supporting the poorer and more vulnerable communities. Over the past decade, there has been a remarkable increase in awareness about climate change issues with diverse stakeholders, including policy makers. The lack of knowledge on the nature, magnitude, and direction of impacts at the indigenous community and national scales will likely continue to haunt decision-making processes regarding the development of robust strategies and policies to support adaptation. However, the regional agricultural sector has to undergo major transformation processes in order to meet emerging demands for adaptation. This may entail changes in the types and forms of information, knowledge, technologies, resource regimes, and institutions driving current production systems. There are still major knowledge gaps across disciplines on how local-level changes in climatic factors influence the socioecological processes that underpin agricultural production systems across spatial and temporal scales. Thus, it has been concluded that the policy making on climate change in Africa is not necessarily constrained by the lack of empirical evidence, but instead by the failure of policy makers to use available empirical evidence. The current failures in linking research to policy could be a major barrier to further research and development innovations for climate change adaptation. Evidence from limited climate change adaptation studies conducted with communities in the region revealed the importance of policy dialogue platforms as an integral part of research and development initiatives.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Abbreviations
- ACMAD:
-
African Centre of Meteorological Application for Development
- ACT:
-
African Conservation Tillage Network
- AGRHYMET:
-
Agro-Hydro-Meteorology
- APRM:
-
African Peer Review Mechanism
- APSIM:
-
Agricultural Production System Simulator
- ASARECA:
-
Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa
- ASWAp:
-
Agriculture Sector Wide Approach of the Government of Malawi
- CA:
-
Conservation Agriculture
- CAADP:
-
Comprehensive African Development Programme
- CCAA:
-
Climate Change Adaptation for Africa
- CILSS:
-
Comité permanent Inter-État de Lutte contre la Sécheresse au Sahel
- COMESA:
-
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
- CORAF/WECARD:
-
Council for Agriculture Research and Development in West and Central Africa
- DFID:
-
Department For International Development (UK)
- EAC:
-
East African Community
- EACCCP:
-
East African Community Climate Change Policy
- ECOWAS:
-
Economic Community of West African States
- ENDA-TM:
-
Environnement et Développement du Tiers-Monde
- FANRPAN:
-
Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network
- FAO:
-
Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations
- FARA:
-
Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa
- GCOS:
-
Global Climate Observation System
- GDP:
-
Gross Domestic Product
- GEF:
-
Global Environment Facility
- GHG:
-
Green House Gas
- GIS:
-
Geographic Information System
- ICRAF:
-
World Agroforestry Centre
- IDRC:
-
International Development Research Centre
- IFAD:
-
International Fund for Agricultural Development
- IITA:
-
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture
- IPCC:
-
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
- IRAD:
-
Institut de Recherche Agricole pour le Developpment (Cameroon)
- ISFM:
-
Integrated Soil Fertility Management
- IUCN:
-
International Union for the Conservation of Nature
- IWMI:
-
International Water Management Institute
- LGP:
-
Length of Growth Period
- MDG:
-
Millennium Development Goal
- NAPA:
-
National Adaptation Programme of Action
- NARES:
-
National Agricultural Research and Extension System
- NEPAD:
-
New Partnership for Africa’s Development
- NGO:
-
Nongovernmental Organisation
- OECD:
-
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
- PAR:
-
Participatory Action Research
- SADC:
-
South African Development Community
- SOFECSA:
-
Soil Fertility Consortium for Southern Africa
- UNDP:
-
United Nations Development Programme
- UNEP:
-
United Nations Environment Programme
- UNFCCC:
-
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
- WAEMU:
-
West African Economic and Monetary Union
- WWF:
-
World Wildlife Fund for Nature
References
Abraha MG, Savage MJ (2006) Potential impacts of climate change on the grain yield of maize for the midlands of Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa. Agric Ecosyst Environ 115:150–160
Adebayo K, Dauda TO, Rikko LS, George FOA, Fashola OS, Atungwu JT, Iposu SO, Shobowale AO, Osuntade OB (2011) Emerging and indigenous technology for climate change adaptation in farming systems of Southwest Nigeria: issue for policy action. African Technology Policy Studies Network, Nairobi
Adebo GM, Ayelari TA (2011) Climate change and vulnerability of fish farmers in south western Nigeria. Afr J Agric Res 6:4230–4238
Adesina FA, Odekunle TO (2011) Climate change and adaptation in Nigeria: some background to Nigeria’s response. In: International conference on environment science and engineering, IPCBEE, vol 15. IACIT Press, Singapore
Aduna AB (2011) Finding new points of influence: building partnership between research and policy worlds in Ghana. In: 3rd international forum for water and food, Tshwane, 14–17 Nov 2011
Agrawala S, Moehner A, Hemp A, van Aalst M, Hitz S, Smith J, Meena H, Mwakifwamba SM, Hyera T, Mwaipopo OU (2003) Development and climate change in Tanzania: focus on Mount Kilimanjaro. Environment Directorate and Development Cooperation Directorate, Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development, Paris
Ajayi OC, Akinnifesi FK, Sileshi G, Chakeredza S (2010) Adoption of renewable soil fertility replenishment technologies in the southern African region: lessons learnt and the way forward. Nat Resour Forum 31:306–317
Akinnifesi FK, Sileshi G, Ajayi OC, Chirwa PW, Mngomba S, Chakeredza S, Nyoka BI (2008) Domestication and conservation of indigenous miombo fruit trees for improving rural livelihoods in southern Africa. Biodiversity 9:72–74
Akponikpe PBI, Gerard B, Michels K, Bielders C (2010) Use of the APSIM model in long term simulation to support decision making regarding nitrogen management for pearl millet in the Sahel. Eur J Agron 32:144–154
Akponikpe PBI, Minet J, Gerand B, Defourny P, Bielders CL (2011) Spatial field dispersion as a farmer strategy to reduce agro-climatic risk at the household level in pearl millet-based systems in the sahel. Agric For Meteorol 151:215–277
Anderson K, Masters W (2008) Distortions to agricultural incentives in sub-Saharan and North Africa. In: Agricultural distortions, working paper 64. The World Bank, Washington, DC
Andersson JA (2001) Re-interpreting the rural-urban connection: migration practices and socio-cultural dispositions of Buhera workers in Harare. Africa 71:82–112
Andersson JA (2002) Going places, staying home: rural-urban connections and the significance of land in Buhera district, Zimbabwe. PhD thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen
Andersson JA, de Garine-Witchatitsky M, Dzingirai V, Cumming DHM, Giller KE (2012) Transfrontier conservation areas: people living on the edge. Routledge, London
Asare A, Wade SA, Ofori-Frimpong K, Hadley P, Norris K (2008) Carbon storage and the health of cocoa agroforestry ecosystems in Southeastern Ghana. In: Open science conference Africa carbon cycle, Accra, 25–27 Nov 2008
AU/NEPAD (2003) Comprehensive Africa agriculture development programme (CAADP), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and Midrand. New partnership for Africa’s development African Union, South Africa
Aw D, Diemer G (2005) Making a large irrigation scheme work: a case study from Mali, directions in development. World Bank, Washington, DC
Bänziger M, Setimela PS, Hodson D, Vivek B (2006) Breeding for improved abiotic stress tolerance in maize adapted to Southern Africa. Agric Water Manag 80:212–224
Baramburiye J, Kyotalimye M, Thomas TS, Waithaka M (2013) Burundi, in East African agriculture and climate change: a comprehensive analysis. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC
Bationo A (2004) Managing nutrient cycles to sustain soil fertility in sub-Sahara Africa. International Center for Tropical Agriculture, Nairobi
Bationo A, Buerkert A (2001) Soil organic carbon management for sustainable land use in sudano-sahelian west Africa. Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst 61:131–142
Bationo A, Rhodes E, Smaling EMA, Viscer C (1996) Technologies for restoring soil fertility. In: Mokwunye AU, de Jager A, Smaling EMA (eds) Restoring and maintaining the productivity of West African soils: key to sustainable development, vol 14, Miscellaneous fertilizer studies. International Fertilizer Development Center, Muscle Shoals, AL, pp 61–82
Bayala J, Sileshi GW, Coe R, Kalinganire A, Tchoundjeu Z, Sinclair F, Garrity D (2012) Cereal yield response to conservation agricultural practices in drylands of west Africa: a quantitative synthesis. J Arid Environ 78:13–25
Below T, Artner A, Siebert R, Sieber S (2010) Micro level practices to adapt to climate change for African small scale farmers: a literature review. IFPRI Discussion Paper 00953. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC
Benhin JKA (2008) South African crop farming and climate change: an economic assessment of impacts. Glob Environ Change 18:666–678
Bilgnaut J, Ueckermann L, Aronson J (2009) Agriculture productions sensitivity to changes in climate in South Africa. S Afr J Sci 105:61–63
BNRCC (2012) Building Nigeria’s response to climate change. http://www.nigeriaclimatechange.org/. Accessed 16 Jan 2015
Brooks N, Adger WN, Kelly PM (2005) The determinants of vulnerability and adaptive capacity at the national level and implications for adaptation. Glob Environ Change 15:151–163
Brown D, Chanakira R, Chatiza K, Dhliwayo M, Dodman D, Masiiwa M, Muchadenyika D, Mugabe P, Zvigadza S (2012) Climate change impacts, vulnerability and adaptation in Zimbabwe. IIED Climate Change Working Paper No. 3, International Institute for Environment and Development, London
Bryan E, Deressa TT, Gbetibouo GA, Ringler C (2009) Adaptation to climate change in Ethiopia and South Africa: options and constraints. Environ Sci Policy 21:413–426
Büscher BE, Mutimukuru T (2007) Buzzing too far. The ideological echo of global governance concepts on the local level: the case of the Mafungautsi forest in Zimbabwe. Dev South Afr 24:649–664
Campbell B (1996) The Miombo in transition: woodland and welfare in Southern Africa. Centre for International Forest Research, Bogor, p 263
Casale M, Drimie S, Quinlan T, Ziervogel G (2010) Understanding vulnerability in Southern Africa: comparative findings using a multiple-stressor approach in South Africa and Malawi. Reg Environ Chang 10:157–168
Cavendish W (2000) Empirical regularities in the poverty environment relationship of rural households: evidence from Zimbabwe. World Dev 28:1979–2003
CCAA (2012) Tailoring climate information to users needs. Policy brief, climate change adaptation in Africa programme. International Development Research Centre and Department for International Development, Ottawa and London
CGIAR (2008) Alliance of CGIAR Center best bets to boost crop yields in sub-Saharan Africa: current products of the alliance of CGIAR Centers. CGIAR, Rome
CGIAR (2009) Identifying livestock-based risk management and options to reduce vulnerability to drought in agro-pastoral and pastoral systems in East and West Africa. Final report, CGIAR System-Wide Livestock Programme, International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi
CGIAR (2010) Drought hardy maize. CGIAR News, November 2010. CGIAR, Rome. http://www.cgiar.org/web-archives/www-cgiar-org-enews-november2010-story_07-html/
CGIAR (2011) Proposal for CGIAR Programme 7: climate change, agriculture and food security. CGIAR, Rome
Chagutah T (2010) Climate change vulnerability and adaptation preparedness in South Africa. Heinrich Böll Stiftung Southern Africa, Cape Town
Chakeredza S, Temu AB, Yaye A, Mukingwa S, Saka JDK (2009) Mainstreaming climate change into agricultural education: challenges and perspectives. ICRAF Working Paper No. 82, World Agroforestry Centre, Nairobi
Challinor A, Wheeler T, Garforth C, Craufurd P, Kassam A (2007) Assessing the vulnerability of food crop systems in Africa to climate change. Clim Change 83:381–399
Chikoore H, Unganai L (2001) Integrating climate forecast information in agricultural management: a perspective from Southern Africa. In: Open meeting of the global environmental change research community, Rio de Janeiro, 6–8 Oct 2001
Chikowo R, Corbeels M, Mapfumo P, Tittonell P, Vanlauwe B, Giller KE (2010) Nitrogen and phosphorus capture and recovery efficiencies, and crop responses to a range of soil fertility management strategies in sub-Saharan Africa. Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst 88:59–77
Clarke J, Cavendish W, Coote C (1996) Rural households and Miombo woodlands: use, value and management. In: Campbell B (ed) The Miombo in transition: woodlands and welfare in Africa. Centre for International Forestry Research, Bogor, pp 101–136
Cooper PJM, Rao KPC, Singh P, Dimes J, Traore PS, Rao K, Dixit P, Tomlow SJ (2009) Farming with current and future climate risk: advancing a “hypothesis of hope” for rainfed agriculture in the semi arid tropics. J Semi-Arid Trop Agric Res 7:1–19
CORAF/WECARD (2011) Agricultural best bets in west and central Africa. West African Council for Agricultural Research and Development, Dakar
Crasswell ET, Grote U, Henao J, Vlek PLG (2004) Nutrient flows in agricultural production and international trade: ecological policy issues. Discussion Paper No. 78, University of Bonn, Bonn
Crespo O, Hachigonta S, Tadross M (2011) Sensitivity of Southern African maize yields to the definition of sowing dekad in a changing climate. Clim Change 106:267–283
Davies GM, Pollard L, Mwenda MD (2010) Perceptions of land-degradation, forest restoration and fire management: a case study from Malawi. Land Degrad Dev 21:546–556
de Janvry A, Sadoulet E (2010) Agriculture for development in Africa: business-as-usual or new departures. J Afr Econ 19:7–39
Delgado CL (1999) Sources of growth in smallholder agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa: the role of vertical integration of smallholders with processors and marketers of high-value items. Agrekon 38:165–189
Denton F, O’Neill M, Stone JMR (2010) Adapting to climate change in Africa: the role of research and capacity development. Special report, World Bank Institute, Washington, DC
Dercon S (2007) Fate and fear: risk and its consequences in Africa. Global Poverty Research Group working paper, University of Oxford, Oxford
Dercon S (2009) Rural poverty: old challenges in new contexts. World Bank Res Obs 24:1–28
DFID (2004) The impact of climate change on the vulnerability of the poor. Policy Division, Global Environmental Assets, Key sheet 03, Department for International Development, London
Dieye AM, Roy DP (2012) A study of rural Senegalese attitudes and perceptions on climate change. Environ Manag 50:929–941
Dinar A, Hassan R, Mendelsohn R, Benhin J (2008) Climate change and agriculture in Africa: impact assessment and adaptation strategies. Earthscan, London
Dixon RK, Smith J, Guill S (2003) Life on the edge: vulnerability and adaptation of African ecosystems to global climate change. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Change 8:93–113
Doraiswamy PC, McCarthy GW, Hunt ERJ, Yost RS, Doumbia M, Franzluebbers AJ (2007) Modeling soil organic sequestration in agricultural lands in Mali. Agric Syst 94:63–74
Dorward A, Chirwa E (2011) The agricultural input subsidy programme 2005/06 to 2008/09. Int J Agric Sustain 9:232–247
Downing TE, Ringuis L, Hulme M, Waughray D (1997) Adapting to climate change in Africa. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Change 2:19–44
Dreschel P, Gyiele LA (1999) The economic assessment of soil nutrient depletion: analytical issues for framework development. Issues in sustainable land management, vol 7. International Board for Soil Research and Management, Bangkok
Dutta R (2009) Information needs and information-seeking behaviour in developing countries: a review of the research. Int Inf Libr Rev 41:44–51
ECOWAS (2008) Environmental policy. ECOWAS, Abuja
ECOWAS (2009a) Sub-regional action program to reduce vulnerability to climate change in West Africa. Part1: Overview of west Africa vulnerability to climate change and of response strategies, Abuja
ECOWAS (2009b) Sub-regional action program to reduce vulnerability to climate change in west Africa. Part 2: The strategic action plan, Abuja
Ellis F, Kutengule M, Nyasala F (2003) Livelihoods and rural poverty reduction in Malawi. World Dev 31:1495–1510
Ericksen P, de Leeuw J, Thornton P, Ayatunde A, Said M, Herrero M, Natenbaert A (2011) Climate change in sub-Saharan Africa: consequences and implications for the future of pastoralism. In: International conference future pastoral, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton, 21–23 March 2011
FAO (2005) Irrigation in Africa in figures: AQUASTAT survey. FAO, Rome
FAO (2008) Expert meeting on climate change adaptation and mitigation, Rome, 5–7 March 2008
FAO (2010a) Climate change implications for food security and natural resource management in Africa: In: 26th regional conference for Africa, Luanda, 3–7 May 2010
FAO (2010b) Climate smart agriculture: policies, practices and financing for food security, adaptation and mitigation, Rome
FAO (2011a) Climate change and food systems resilience in sub-Saharan Africa, Rome
FAO (2011b) La situation des forêts dans le basin amazonien, le Bassin du Congo et l’Asie du Sud-Est, Rome
FAO (2011c) Global forest resources assessment 2010. Forestry Paper No.165, Rome
Farauta BK, Egbule C, Idrisa YL, Agu VC (2012) Policy challenges of climate change and adaptation in northern Nigeria. Technology Brief No. 34, African Technology Policy Studies Network, Nairobi
Fischer G, Shah M, Tubiello FN, van Velhuizen H (2005) Socio-economic and climate change impacts on agriculture: an integrated assessment, 1990–2080. Philos Trans R Soc B 360:2067–2083
Fox P, Rockstrom J, Barron J (2005) Risk analysis and economic viability of water harvesting for supplementary irrigation in semi Arid Burkina Faso and Kenya. Agric Syst 83:231–250
Frost P, Campbell B, Luckert M, Mutamba M, Madondo A, Kozanyi W (2007) In search of improved livelihoods in semi-arid regions through local management of natural resources: lessons from case studies in Zimbabwe. World Dev 35:1961–1974
Gbetibouo GA (2008) Understanding farmers perceptions and adaptations to climate change and variability: the vase of the Limpopo basin, South Africa. IFPRI Discussion Paper 00849, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC
Gbetibouo GA, Hassan RM (2005) Measuring the economic impact of climate change on major South African field crops: a Ricardian approach. Glob Plan Change 47:143–152
GEF (2012) Burkina Faso: integrating climate resilience into agricultural and pastoral production for food security in vulnerable rural areas through the farmers field school approach. The Global Environment Facility, Washington, DC
Giller KE, Rowe EC, de Ridder N, van Keulen H (2006) Resource use dynamics and interactions in the tropics: scaling up in space and time. Agric Syst 88:8–27
Giller KE, Leeuwis C, Andersson JA, Andriesse W, Brouwer A, Frost P, Hebinck P, Heitkönig I, van Ittersum MK, Koning N, Ruben R, Slingerland M, Udo H, Veldkamp T, van de Vijver C, van Wijk MT, Windmeijer P (2008) Competing claims on natural resources: what role for science. Ecol Soc 13:34
Giller KE, Witter E, Corbeels M, Tittonell D (2009) Conservation agriculture and smallholder farming in Africa: the Heretic’s view. Field Crops Res 114:23–34
Giller KE, Corbeels M, Nyamangara J, Triomphe B, Affoholder F, Scopel E, Tittonell P (2011a) A research agenda to explore the role of conservation agriculture in African smallholder farming systems. Field Crops Res 124:468–472
Giller KE, Tittonell P, Rufino MC, van Wijk MT, Zingore S, Mapfumo P, Adjei-Nsiah S, Herrero M, Chikowo R, Corbeels M, Rowe EC, Baijukya F, Mwijage A, Smith J, Yeboah E, van der Burg WJ, Sanogo OM, Misiko M, de Ridder N, Karanja S, Kaizzi C, K’ungu J, Mwale M, Nwaga D, Pacini C, Vanlauwe B (2011b) Communicating complexity: integrated assessment of trade-offs concerning soil fertility management within African farming systems to support innovation and development. Agric Syst 104:191–203
Gologo H (2012) Adaptation is informing and involving farmers in Benin. International Development Research Centre, Ottawa
Gonzales-Estrada E, Rodriguez LC, Walen VK, Naab JB, Koo J, Jones JW, Herrero M, Thornton PK (2008) Carbon sequestration and farm income in West Africa: identifying best management practices for smallholder agricultural systems in northern Ghana. Ecol Econ 67:492–502
Government of Burundi (2007) National adaptation programme of action. Ministry for Land Management, Tourism and Development, Bujumbura
Government of Kenya (2002) First national communication of Kenya to the conference of parties to the United Nations framework convention on climate change. Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, Nairobi
Government of Liberia (2013) Climate change adaptation in agriculture: capacity needs assessment. Ministry of Agriculture, Monrovia
Government of Malawi (2002) Initial national communication under the United Nations framework convention on climate change. Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Affairs, Lilongwe
Government of Malawi (2006) Malawi’s national adaptation programme of action (NAPA) under the United Nations framework convention on climate change (UNFCCC). Ministry of Mines, Natural Resources and Environment, Lilongwe
Government of Malawi (2008) Enhancing agricultural input use efficiency in Malawi. A research report of the national subsidy programme technical support workshop in Lilongwe, Department of Planning, Ministry of Agriculture, Lilongwe, 15–16 April 2008
Government of Malawi (2011) Sector policies response to climate change in Malawi: a comprehensive gap analysis. Ministry of Finance and Development Planning, Lilongwe
Government of Malawi (2012) National climate change policy. Ministry of Environment and Climate Change Management, Lilongwe
Government of Rwanda (2006) National adaptation programme of action. Ministry of Lands, Environment, Forestry, Water and Mines, Kigali
Government of Sierra Leone (2004) Agricultural sector review and agricultural development strategy. Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security and Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources, Freetown
Government of Sierra Leone (2012) Government budget and statement of economic and financial policies. Government of Sierra Leone, Freetown
Government of South Africa (2002) Integrated food security strategy for south Africa. Department of Agriculture, Pretoria
Government of South Africa (2004) A national climate change response strategy for South Africa. Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Pretoria
Government of South Africa (2009) The comprehensive rural development programme framework. Department of Rural Development and Land Reform, Pretoria
Government of South Africa (2012) Integrated growth and development plan. Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Pretoria
Government of Tanzania (2007) National adaptation programme of action. Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment, Dar-Es Salaam
Government of Uganda (2007) National adaptation programme of action. Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment, Kampala
Government of Zimbabwe (2012) Comprehensive agriculture policy framework (2012–2032). Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanization and Irrigation Development, Harare
Government of Zimbabwe (2013) Poverty and poverty datum line analysis in Zimbabwe 2011/12. Zimbabwe National Statistical Agency, Harare
Government of Zimbabwe/UNDP/GEF (2009) Coping with drought and climate change project. Climate change: scenarios for the save catchment of Zimbabwe with special reference to Chiredzi. Synthesis report, Environmental Management Agency, Harare
Grivetti LE, Ogle BM (2000) Value of traditional foods in meeting macro- and micronutrient needs: the wild plant connection. Nutr Res Rev 13:31–46
Gukurume S (2013) Climate change variability and sustainable agriculture in Zimbabwe’s rural communities. Russ J Agric Socio Econ Sci 2:89–100
Gukurume S, Nhodo L, Dube C (2010) Conservation farming and the food security-insecurity matrix in Zimbabwe: a case study of ward 21 Chivi rural. J Sustain Dev Afr 12:40–52
Gwandu T, Mtambanengwe F, Mapfumo P, Mashavave TC, Chikowo R, Nezomba H (2013) Factors influencing access to integrated soil fertility management information and knowledge and its uptake among smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe. J Agric Educ Ext 20:79–93
Hachigonta S, Nelson GC, Thomas TS, Sibanda LM (2013) Southern African agriculture and climate change: a comprehensive analysis. International Food Research Institute, Washington, DC, p 337
Harrington LW, Humphreys E, Huber-Lee A, Nguyen-Khoa S, Cook S, Gichuki F, Johnson N, Ringler C, Geheb K, Wooley J (2008) A summing up: synthesis 07. CPWF synthesis report. CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food, Colombo
Howden SM, Soussana JF, Tubiello FN, Chhetri N, Dunlop M, Meinke H (2007) Adapting agriculture to climate change. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104:19691–19696
Hulme M, Doherty R, Ngara T, New M, Lister D (2001) African climate change: 1900–2100. Clim Res 17:145–168
Huq S, Reid H (2005) Climate change and development: consultation on key researchable issues. International Institute for Environment and Development, London
IAC (2004) Realizing the promise and potential of African agriculture. Inter Academy Council, Amsterdam
Ibrahim MGP, Alex RS (2008) The impact of changing environmental conditions on vulnerable communities in the Shire valley, southern Malawi. In: Lee C, Schaaf T (eds) The future of drylands. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 545–559
IDS (2011) Research to policy for adaptation: linking African researchers with adaptation policy spaces. Final project report, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton
IFAD (2011) Addressing climate change in west and central Africa: forest management in Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon and Nigeria. International Fund for Agricultural Development, Rome
IFPRI (2010) Strategies for adapting to climate change in rural sub-Saharan Africa: a review of data sources. IFPRI Discussion Paper 01013, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC
IPCC (2001) Climate change 2001: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group I to the third assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
IPCC (2007a) Summary for policymakers. In: Parry ML, Canziani OF, Palutikof JP, van der Linden PJ, Hanson CE (eds) Climate change 2007: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
IPCC (2007b) Climate change 2007. Synthesis report. In: Pachauri RK, Reisinger A (eds) Contribution of Working Group I, II, III to the 4th assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. IPCC, Geneva
IPCC (2012) Managing the risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate change adaptation. A special report of Working Groups I and II of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
IRAD (2008) Rapport technique, cultures annuelles. Institute of Agricultural Research for Development, Yaoundé
IUCN (2004) Reduire la vulnerabilite de l’Afrique de l’Ouest aux impacts du climat sur les resources en eau, les zones humides et la desertification. International Union for Conservation of Nature, Nairobi
Jalloh A, Rhodes ER, Kollo I, Roy-Macauley H, Sereme P (2011a) Nature and management of soils of west and central Africa: a review to inform farming systems research and development in the region. West and Central African Council for Agricultural Research and Development, Dakar
Jalloh A, Sarr H, Kuiseu J, Roy-Macauley H, Sereme P (2011b) Review of climate change in west and central Africa to inform farming system research and development in subhumid and semiarid agroecologies of the region. West and Central African Council for Agricultural Research and Development, Dakar
Jalloh A, Nelson GC, Thomas TS, Zougmoure R, Roy-Macauley H (2013) West African agriculture and climate change. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC
Johnston P, Hachigonta S, Sibanda SM, Thomas TS (2012) South Africa in Southern African agriculture and climate change: a comprehensive analysis. IFPRI Monograph, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC
Jones P, Thornton PK (2009) Croppers to livestock keepers: livelihood transitions to 2050 in Africa due to climate change. Environ Sci Policy 12:427–437
Kalenga-Saka JD, Msonthi JD (1994) Nutritional value of edible fruits of indigenous wild trees in Malawi. For Ecol Manag 64:245–248
Kandlinkar M, Risbey J (2000) Agricultural impacts of climate change: if adaptation is the answer, what is the question. Clim Change 45:529–539
Kanonge G, Nezomba H, Chikowo R, Mtambanengwe F, Mapfumo P (2009) Assessing the potential benefits of organic and mineral fertilizer combinations on maize and legume productivity under smallholder management in Zimbabwe. Afr Crop Sci 9:63–70
Kasasa P, Mpepereki S, Musiyiwa K, Makonese F, Giller KE (1999) Residual nitrogen fixation benefits of promiscuous soyabeans to maize under field conditions. Afr Crop Sci J 7:375–382
Kato E, Nkonya E, Place FM (2011) Heterogenous treatment effects of integrated soil fertility management on crop productivity. IFPRI Discussion Paper 01089, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC
Kazombo-Phiri SFM (2005) Main causes of declining soil productivity in Malawi: effects on agriculture and management technologies employed to alleviate the problems. In: Omanya GO, Pasternak D (eds) Sustainable agriculture for the drylands. Proceedings of the international symposium for sustainable dryland agriculture systems, Niamey, 2–5 Dec 2003, pp 59–66
Kepe T (2008) Beyond the numbers: understanding the value of vegetation to rural livelihoods in Africa. Geoforum 39:958–968
Kherallah M, Delgado C, Gabre-Madhin E, Minot N, Johnson M (2000) The road half traveled: agricultural market reform in Sub-Saharan Africa. Food Policy Report, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC
Kiker GA (2002) CANEGRO-DSSAT linkages with geographic information systems: applications in climate change research for South Africa. In: 2nd international CANEGRO workshop, South African Sugar Association, Mount Edgecombe, 9–10 Oct 2002
Knight R, Sylla F (2011) Francophone West Africa biotechnology report. Global Agricultural Information Network, Washington, DC
Knox J, Hess T, Daccache A, Wheler T (2012) Climate change impacts on crop productivity in Africa and South Asia. Environ Res Lett 7:034032
Komba C, Muchapondwa E (2012) Adaptation to climate change by smallholder farmers in Tanzania. ERSA Working Paper No. 299, Economic Research Southern Africa, Cape Town
Kra ET, Ofosu-Anim J (2010) Modeling maize planting date to minimize irrigation water requirements. Aust J Agric Eng 1:66–73
Kruger AC, Shongwe S (2004) Temperature trends in South Africa: 1960–2003. Int J Climatol 24:1929–1945
Kurukulasuriya P, Mendelsohn R (2008) How will climate change shift agroecological zones and impact African agriculture? Policy Research Working Paper 4717. The World Bank, Washington, DC
Lahiff E (2007) Willing buyer, willing seller: South Africa’s failed experiment in market-led agrarian reform. Third World Q 28:1577–1598
Le QB, Tamene L, Vlek PLG (2012) Multi-pronged assessment of land degradation in west Africa to assess the importance of atmospheric fertilization in masking the processes involved. Glob Planet Chang 92:71–81
Liwenga ET, Kwezi L, Afifi T (2012) Where the rainfall falls project. Case study: Tanzania. Report No. 6. Institute for Environment and Human Security, United Nations University, Bonn
Lobell DB, Burke MB, Tebaldi C, Mastrandrea MD, Falcon WP, Naylor RL (2008) Prioritizing climate change adaptation needs for food security in 2030. Science 319:607–610
Lobell DB, Bänziger M, Magorokosho C, Vivek B (2011) Nonlinear heat effects on African maize as evidenced by historical yield trials. Nat Clim Change 1:42–45
Lybbert T, Sumner D (2010) Agricultural technologies for climate mitigation and adaptation in developing countries: policy options for innovation and technology diffusion. International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development, Geneva
MacCarthy DS, Sommer R, Vlek PLG (2009) Modeling the impacts of contrasting nutrient and residue management practices on grain yield of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) in a semi arid region of Ghana using APSIM. Field Crops Res 113:105–115
Mafongoya PL, Bationo A, Kihara J, Waswa BS (2006) Appropriate technologies to replenish soil fertility in Southern Africa. Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst 76:137–151
Magombo TM, Kanthiti G, Phiri G, Kachulu M, Kabuli H (2012) Incidence of indigenous, emerging and innovative climate change adaptation practices for smallholder farmers’ livelihood security in Chikhwawa district, southern Malawi. Working Paper No. 63, African Technology Policy Studies Network, Nairobi
Majule AE, Stathers T, Lamboll R, Liwenga ET, Ngongondo C, Kalanda-Joshua M (2011) Strengthening local agricultural innovation systems in Tanzania and Malawi to adapt to the challenges and opportunities arising from climate change and variability. Final technical report, International Development Research Centre, Eastern and Southern Africa Office, Nairobi
Makadho JM (1996) Potential effects of climate change on corn production in Zimbabwe. Clim Res 6:147–151
Manneh B, Kiepe P, Sie M, Ndjiondjop M, Drame NK, Traore K, Rodenburg J, Somado EA, Narteh L, Youm O, Diagne A, Futakuchi K (2007) Exploiting partnerships in research and development to help African rice farmers cope with climate variability. SAT e-J 4:1–24
Mano R, Nhemachena C (2007) Assessment of the economic impacts of climate change on agriculture in Zimbabwe: a Ricardian approach. CEEPA Discussion Paper 11, Centre for Environmental Economics and Policy in Africa, University of Pretoria, Pretoria
Mapedza E, Wright J, Fawcett R (2003) An investigation of land cover change in Mafungautsi Forest, Zimbabwe, using GIS and participatory mapping. Appl Geogr 23:1–21
Mapfumo P (2009) Integrating sustainable soil fertility management innovations in staple cereal systems and other value chains to enhance livelihoods and environmental systems in southern Africa. SOFECSA technical annual report for the sub-Saharan challenges program of the forum for agricultural research in Africa, Harare
Mapfumo P (2011) Comparative analysis of the current and potential role of legumes in integrated soil fertility management in southern Africa. In: Bationo A, Waswa B, Okeyo JM, Maina F, Kihara J, Mokwunye U (eds) Fighting poverty in sub-Saharan Africa: the multiple roles of legumes in integrated soil fertility management, 1st edn. Springer, New York, NY, pp 175–200
Mapfumo P, Giller KE (2001) Soil fertility management strategies and practices by smallholder farmers in semi-arid areas of Zimbabwe. International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Bulawayo
Mapfumo P, Mtambanengwe F, Mpepereki S, Giller KE (2005) Tapping indigenous herbaceous legumes for soil fertility management by resource-poor farmers in Zimbabwe. Agric Ecosyst Environ 109:221–233
Mapfumo P, Chikowo R, Mtambanengwe F (2010) Lack of resilience in African smallholder farming: exploring measures to enhance the adaptive capacity of local communities to climate change. Final technical report to the climate change adaptation in Africa program. University of Zimbabwe, Harare
Mapfumo P, Nsiah-Adjei S, Mtambanengwe F, Chikowo R, Giller KE (2013) Participatory action research (PAR) as an entry point for supporting climate change adaptation by small holder farmers. Environ Dev 5:6–22
Maponya P, Mpandeli S (2012) Climate change and agricultural production in South Africa: impacts and adaptation options. J Agric Sci 4:48–60
Mashavave T, Mapfumo P, Mtambanengwe F, Gwandu T, Siziba S (2013) Interaction patterns determining improved information and knowledge sharing among smallholder farmers. Afr J Agric Resour Econ 8:1–12
Matarira CH, Makadho JC, Mukahanana-Sangarwe M (2004) Vulnerability and adaptation of maize production to climate change in Zimbabwe. Government of Zimbabwe Publication, Harare
Matiya G, Lunduka R, Sikwese M (2011) Costing climate change adaptation in agriculture: a case study of small-scale maize production in Malawi. International Institute for Environment and Development, London
Mazvimavi D (2010) Investigating changes over time of annual rainfall in Zimbabwe. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 14:2671–2679
Meadows ME, Hoffman MT (2002) The nature, extent and causes of land degradation in South Africa: legacy of the past, lessons for the future. Area 34:428–437
Mertz O, Mbow C, Reenberg A (2009) Farmers perceptions of climate change and agricultural adaptation strategies in Rural Sahel. Environ Manag 43:804–816
Milgroom J, Giller KE (2013) Courting the rain: rethinking seasonality and adaptation to recurrent drought in semi-arid southern Africa. Agric Syst 118:91–104
Miller F, Osbahr H, Boyd E, Thomalla F, Bharwani S, Ziervogel G, Walker B, Birkmann J, van der Leeuw S, Rockström J, Hinkel J, Downing T, Folke C, Nelson D (2010) Resilience and vulnerability: complementary or conflicting concepts. Ecol Soc 15:11
Mkandawire T (2005) Maladjusted African economies and globalization. Afr Dev 30:1–33
Molden D, Frenkenk K, Barker R, de Fraiture C, Mati B, Svendsen M, Sadoff C, Findlayson M (2007) Trends in water and agricultural development. In: Molden D (ed) Water for food, water for life: a comprehensive assessment of water management in agriculture. Earthscan, London; International Water Management Institute, Colombo
Moore N, Alagarswamy G, Pijanowski B, Thornton P, Lofgren B, Olson J, Andresen J, Yanda P, Qi J (2011) East African food security as influenced by future climate change and land use change at local to regional scales. Clim Change 110:823–844
Mpepereki S, Javaheri F, Davis P, Giller KE (2000) Soyabeans and sustainable agriculture: promiscuous soyabeans in southern Africa. Field Crop Res 65:137–149
Mtambanengwe F, Mapfumo P (2005) Organic matter management as an underlying cause for soil fertility gradients on smallholder farms in Zimbabwe. Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst 73:227–243
Mtambanengwe F, Mapfumo P (2009) Combating food insecurity on sandy soils in Zimbabwe: the legume challenge. Symbiosis 48:25–36
Mtambanengwe F, Mapfumo P, Chikowo R, Chamboko T (2012) Climate change and variability: smallholder farming communities in Zimbabwe portray a varied understanding. Afr Crop Sci J 20:227–241
Muamba FM, Ulimwengu JM (2010) Optimal rainfall insurance contracts for maize producers in Ghana’s Northern region: a mathematical programming approach. IFPRI Discussion Paper 01016, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC
Mugabe FT, Hachigonta S, Sibanda LM, Thomas TS (2012) Zimbabwe, in southern African agriculture and climate change: a comprehensive analysis. IFPRI Monograph, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC
Muller J, Almedom AM (2008) What is “Famine Food”. Distinguishing between traditional vegetables and special foods for times of hunger/scarcity (Boumba, Niger). Hum Ecol 36:599–607
Muller R, Muller D, Schierhorn F, Gerold G, Pacheco P (2011) Proximate causes of deforestation in the Bolivian lowlands: an analysis of spatial dynamics. Reg Environ Chang 12:445–459
Mumba M, Harding B (2009) A preliminary stocktaking: organisations and projects focused on climate change adaptation in Africa. Stock-taking report contributing to the Africa adaptation network as an integral part of the global adaptation network facilitated by the United Nations Environment Programme
Mutekwa VT (2009) Climate change impacts and adaptation in the agricultural sector: the case of smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe. J Sustain Dev Afr 11:237–256
Mutimukuru T, Kozanayi W, Nyirenda R (2006) Catalysing collaborative monitoring processes in joint forest management situations: the Mafungautsi Forest case, Zimbabwe. J Soc Nat Resour 9:209–224
Naab JB, Koranteng H (2012) Using a gender lens to explore farmers adaptation options in the face of climate change: results of a pilot study in Ghana. Working Paper No. 17, CGIAR Challenge Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security, CGIAR, Rome
Namara RE, Barry B, Owosu ES, Ogilve A (2011) An overview of the development challenges and constraints of the Niger basin and possible intervention strategies. Working Paper No. 144, International Water Management Institute, Colombo
Ncube B, Dimes JP, Twomlow SJ, Mupangwa W, Giller KE (2007) Raising the productivity of smallholder farms under semi-arid conditions by use of small doses of manure and nitrogen: a case of participatory research. Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst 77:53–67
Nelson GC, Rosegrant NW, Palazzo A, Gray I, Ingersoll C, Robertson R, Tokgoz S, Zhu T, Sulser TB, Ringler C, Msangi S, You L (2010) Food security, farming and climate change to 2050: scenarios results, policy options. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC
Nelson GC, Palazzo A, Mason-d’Croz D, Robertson R, Thomas TS (2013) Methodology. In: Jalloh A, Nelson GC, Thomas TS, Robert Z, Roy-Macauley H (eds) West African agriculture and climate change. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington, DC, pp 37–52
Nezomba H, Tauro TP, Mtambanengwe F, Mapfumo P (2010) Indigenous legume fallows (Indifallows) as an alternative soil fertility resource in smallholder maize cropping Systems. Field Crops Res 115:149–157
Ngigi SN (2009) Climate change adaptation strategies: water resources management options for smallholder farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa. The MDG Center for East and Southern Africa, The Earth Institute of Columbia University, New York, NY
Nhemachena C, Hassan R (2007) Micro-level analysis of farmers’ adaptation to climate change in southern Africa. IFPRI Discussion Paper 00714, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC
Niang I (2007) Institutional framework in relation to climate change in west and central Africa. Climate Change Adaptation in Africa Programme, International Development Research Centre and Department for International Development, Ottawa and London
Niasse M (2005) Climate induced water conflict risk in west Africa: recognizing and coping with increasing climate impacts on shared watercourses. In: International workshop on human security and climate change. Centre for International Environmental and Climate Research of the University of Oslo for the Global Change and Human Society Programme, Oslo, 21–23 June 2005
Nielsen JO, Reenberg A (2010) Cultural barriers to climate change adaptation: a case study from northern Burkina Faso. Glob Environ 20:142–152
Nkem J, Santoso H, Murdiyarso D, Brockhaus M, Kanninen M (2007) Using tropical forest ecosystem goods and services for planning climate change adaptation with implications for food security and poverty reduction. J Semi Arid Trop Agric Res 4:1–23
Nkem J, Munang R, Jallow, BP (2011) Lessons for adaptation in sub-Saharan Africa, climate change and development: adapting by reducing vulnerability program. United Nations Environment Programme and United Nations Development Programme, Nairobi and New York
Nkonya E, Place F, Pendar J, Mwanjololo M, Okhimambe A, Kato E, Crespo S, Ndjeunga J, Traore S (2011) Climate risk management through sustainable land management in sub-Saharan Africa. IFPRI Discussion Paper 01126, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC
Nyamangara J, Nyagumbo I (2010) Interactive effects of selected nutrient resources and tied-ridging on plant growth performance in a semi-arid smallholder farming environment in central Zimbabwe. Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst 88:103–109
Nyikahadzoi K, Siziba S, Mango N, Mapfumo P, Adekunhle A, Fatunbi O (2012) Creating food self reliance among the smallholder farmers of eastern Zimbabwe: exploring the role of integrated agricultural research for development. Food Secur 4:647–656
Nyong A, Adesina F, Elasha OB (2007) The value of indigenous knowledge in climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies in the African Sahel. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Change 12:787–797
Nzeadibe TC, Egbule CL, Chukwuone NA, Agu VC (2011) Farmers perception of climate change governance and adaptation constraints in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. Research Paper No. 7. African Technology Policy Studies Network, Nairobi
O’Brien K, Quinlan T, Ziervogel G (2009) Vulnerability interventions in the context of multiple stressors: lessons from the southern Africa vulnerability initiative (SAVI). Environ Sci Policy 12:23–32
OECD/FAO (2006) OECD-FAO agricultural outlook 2006–2015. OECD/FA, p 60
Panyan EK, Quattara K, Karbo N, Avornyo FK, Ayantunde A, Yahayai I, Swadogo B, Kabore A (2011) Constraints and opportunities in rainwater management in crop-livestock systems of Volta basin in Ghana and Burkina Faso. In: Third international forum on water and food, CGIAR Challenge Programme, Tshwane, 14–17 Nov 2011
Patt A, Gwata C (2002) Effective seasonal climate change forecast applications: examining constraints for subsistence farmers in Zimbabwe. Glob Environ Change 12:185–195
Patt A, Suarez P, Gwata C (2005) Effects of seasonal climate forecasts and participatory workshops among subsistence farmers in Zimbabwe. Proc Natl Acad Sci 102:12623–12628
Pawluk RR, Sandor JA, Tabor JA (1992) The role of indigenous soil knowledge in agricultural development. J Soil Water Conserv 47:298–302
Phillips JG, Cane MA, Rosenzweig C (1998) ENSO, seasonal rainfall patterns and simulated maize yield variability in Zimbabwe. Agric For Meteorol 90:39–50
Reddy T (2011) Carbon trading in Africa: a critical review. Monograph No. 184, Institute for Security Studies, Pretoria
Reij C, Smaling EMA (2008) Analyzing successes in agriculture and land management in sub-Saharan Africa: is macro level gloom obscuring positive micro level change. Land Policy 25:410–420
Rhodes ER (1995) Nutrient depletion by food crops in Ghana and soil organic nitrogen management. Agric Syst 48:101–118
Rhodes ER, Bationo A, Smaling EMA, Viscer C (1996) Nutrient stocks and flows in west African soils. In: Mokwunye AU, de Jager A, Smaling EMA (eds) Restoring and maintaining the productivity of west African soils: key to sustainable development, vol 14, Miscellaneous fertilizer studies. International Fertilizer Development Center, Muscle Shoals, AL, pp 22–32
Roe D, Nelson F, Sandbrook, C (2009) Community management of natural resources in Africa: impacts, experiences and future directions. Natural Resource Issues No. 18, International Institute for Environment and Development, London
Roncoli C, Ingram K, Kirshen P (2001) The costs and risks of coping with drought: livelihood impacts and farmers responses in Burkina Faso. Clim Res 19:119–132
Roncoli C, Orlove BS, Kabungo MR, Waiswa MM (2011) Cultural styles of participation in farmers, discussions of seasonal climate forecasting in Uganda. Agric Hum Values 28:123–138
Roudier P, Sultan B, Quirion P, Berg A (2011) The impact of climate change on west African crop yields: what does the recent literature say. Glob Environ Change 21:1073–1083
Roudier P, Sultan B, Quiron P, Baron C, Alhassane A, Traore SB, Muller B (2012) An ex ante evaluation of the use of seasonal climate forecasts for millet growers in South west Niger. Int J Climatol 32:759–771
Rufino MC, Dury J, Tittonell P, van Wijk MT, Herrero M, Zingore S, Mapfumo P, Giller KE (2011) Competing use of organic resources, village-level interactions between farm types and climate variability in a communal area of NE Zimbabwe. Agric Syst 104:175–190
Rukuni M, Tawonezvi P, Eicher C, Munyuki-Hungwe M, Matondi P (2006) Zimbabwe’s agricultural revolution revisited. University of Zimbabwe Publications, Harare
Rurinda J, Mapfumo P, van Wijk MT, Mtambanengwe F, Rufino M, Chikowo R, Giller KE (2012) Integrating soil nutrient management and timing of planting for increased maize productivity under variable rainfall in eastern Zimbabwe. In: Zimbabwe national climate change symposium, Harare, 6–8 June 2012
Rurinda J, Mapfumo P, van Wijk MT, Mtambanengwe F, Rufino MC, Chikowo R, Giller KE (2013) Managing soil fertility to adapt to rainfall variability in smallholder cropping systems in Zimbabwe. Field Crops Res 154:211–225
SADC (2003) Towards identifying impacts of HIV/AIDS on food insecurity in southern Africa and implications for a response: findings from Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Vulnerability Assessment Committee, Directorate of Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources, Southern African Development Community, Harare
SADC (2012) Regional agricultural policy (RAP): priority policy issues and interventions. Vulnerability Assessment Committee, Directorate of Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources, Southern African Development Community, Gaborone
Saka JDK, Siable P, Hachigonta S, Sibanda LM, Thomas TS (2012) Malawi. In: Southern African agriculture and climate change: a comprehensive analysis. IFPRI Monograph, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC
Sanchez PA, Shephard, KD, Soule MJ, Place FM, Buresh RJ, Izac AN, Mokunye AU, Kwesiga FR, Ndiritu CG, Woomer PL (1997) Soil fertility replenishment in Africa: an investment in natural resource capital. In: Buresh JR, Sanchez PA, Calhoun F (eds) Replenishing soil fertility in Africa. SSSA Special Publication 51. Soil Science Society of America, Madison, WI, pp 1–46
Sarr B, Traore S, Seyni S (2007) Evaluation de l’incidence des changements climatique sur les rendments des cultures cerealieres en Afrique Soudano-Sahelienne. AGRHYMET Regional Centre Niamey, Niger
Sayne A (2011) Climate change adaptation and conflict in Nigeria. Special report, United States Institute of Peace, Washington, DC
Schlecht E, Buerkert A, Tielkes E, Bationo A (2006) A critical analysis of challenges and opportunities for soil fertility restoration in Sudano-Sahelian West Africa. Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst 76:109–136
Schlenker W, Lobell DB (2010) Robust negative impacts of climate change on African agriculture. Environ Res Lett 5:014010
SEI (2009) Economics of climate change—Kenya. Stockholm Environmental Institute, Stockholm
Seitz J, Nyangena W (2009) Economic impact of climate change in the Eastern Africa community, Toulouse, France and Eschborn. Global 21 Consulting and Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit
Shackleton CM, Shackleton SE (2004) The importance of non-timber forest products in rural livelihood security and as safety nets: a review of evidence from South Africa. S Afr J Sci 100:658–664
Shackleton CM, Shackleton SE, Cousins B (2001) The role of land-based strategies in rural livelihoods: the contribution of Arable production, animal husbandry and natural resource harvesting in communal areas in South Africa. Dev South Afr 18:581–604
Shah T, Burke J, Vilholth K (2007) Groundwater: a global assessment scale and significance. In: Molden D (ed) Water for food, water for life. A comprehensive assessment of water management in agriculture. International Water Management Institute, Colombo
Shayo CM (2006) Adaptation planning and implementation: agriculture and food security. Presented at the UNFCCC African regional workshop on adaptation, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Accra, 21–23 Sept 2006
Simms A (2005) Africa: up in smoke. The second report from the working group on climate change and development. New Economics Foundation, London
Slingo JM, Challinor AJ, Hoskins BJ, Wheeler TR (2005) Introduction: food crops in a changing climate. Philos Trans R Soc B 360:1983–1989
Spore (2013) Climate risk insurance in Ghana. http://spore.cta.int/en/component/content/article/37-spore/31/8011-biofuel. Accessed 24 April 2014
Stoorvogel JJ, Smaling EMA (1998) Research on soil fertility decline in tropical environments: integration of spatial scales. Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst 50:151–158
Stringer LC, Dyer JC, Reed MS, Dougill AJ, Twyman C, Mkwambasi D (2009) Adaptations to climate change, drought and desertification: local insights to enhance policy in southern Africa. Environ Sci Policy 12:748–765
Sultan B, Barbier B, Fortilus J, Mboye SM, Leclerk G (2010) Estimating the potential economic value of seasonal forecasts in West Africa: a long term ex ante assessment in Senegal. Weather Clim Soc 2:69–87
Synnevag G, Lambrou J (2012) Climate-smart agriculture: possible roles of agricultural universities in a strengthened Norwegian climate change engagement in Africa. Noragric Report No. 64, Department of International Environment and Development Studies, Norwegian University of Life Sciences
Tadross MA, Hewitson BC, Usman MT (2005) The inter-annual variability of the onset of the maize growing season over South Africa and Zimbabwe. J Clim 18:3356–3372
Tadross MA, Suarez P, Lotsch L, Hachigonta S, Mdoka M, Unganai L, Lucio F, Kamdonyo D, Muchinda M (2009) Growing-season rainfall and scenarios of future change in Southeast Africa: implications for cultivating maize. Clim Res 40:147–161
Takimoto A, Nair PKR, Nair VD (2008) Carbon stock and sequestration potential of traditional and improved agroforestry systems in the west African Sahel. Agric Ecosyst Environ 125:159–166
Tall A (2010) Climate forecasting to serve communities in West Africa. Procedia Environ Sci 1:421–431
Tambo JA, Abdoulaye T (2012) Climate change and technology adoption: the case of drought tolerant maize in rural Nigeria. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Chang 17:277–292
Tanyanyiwa VI, Chikwanha M (2011) The role of indegenous knowledge systems in the management of forest resources in Mugabe Area, Masvingo, Zimbabwe. J Sustain Dev Afr 13:132–149
Tenge NG, Mutabazi A, Thomas ST (2013) Rwanda, in East African agriculture and climate change: a comprehensive analysis. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC
Theu J, Chavula D, Elias C (1996) Malawi: how climate change adaptation options fit within UNFCC National Communication and National Development Plans. In: Smith J, Bhatti N, Menzhulin G, Benioff R, Budyko MI, Campos M, Jallow B, Rijsberman F, Budyko MI, Rijsberman F (eds) Adapting to climate change. An international perspective. Springer, New York, NY
Thierfelder C, Wall PC (2010) Investigating conservation agriculture (CA) systems in Zambia and Zimbabwe to mitigate future effects of climate change. J Crop Improv 24:113–121
Thomas DSG, Twyman C, Osbahr H, Hewitson B (2011) Adaptation to climate change and variability: farmer responses to Intra-seasonal precipitation trends in South Africa. In: Williams CJR, Kniveton DR (eds) African climate and climate change. Springer, Berlin, pp 155–178
Thompson HE, Berrang-Ford L, Ford JD (2010) Climate change and food security in sub-saharan Africa: a systematic literature review. Sustainability 2:2719–2733
Thornton P, Herrero M, Freeman A, Mwai O, Rege E, Jones P, McDermott J (2007) Vulnerability, climate change and livestock: research opportunities and challenges for poverty alleviation. J Semi Arid Trop Agric Res 4:1–23
Thornton PK, Jones PG, Alagarswamy G, Andresen J, Herrero M (2010) Adapting to climate change: agricultural system and household impacts in East Africa. Agric Syst 103:73–82
Tingem M, Rivington M, Bellocchi G, Azam-Ali S, Colls J (2008) Effects of climate change on crop production in Cameroon. Clim Res 36:65–77
Tingem M, Rivington M, Bellocchi G (2009) Adaptation assessments for crop production in response to climate change in Cameroon. Agron Sustain Dev 29:247–256
Tittonell P, Scopel E, Andrieu N, Posthumus H, Mapfumo P, Corbeels M, van Halsema GE, Lahmar R, Lugandu S, Rakotoarisoa J, Mtambanengwe F, Pound B, Chikowo R, Naudin K, Triomphe B, Mkomwa S (2012) Agroecology-based aggradation-conservation agriculture (ABACO): targeting innovations to combat soil degradation and food insecurity in semi-arid Africa. Field Crops Res 132:168–174
Torquebiau E (2013) Agroforestry and climate change. FAO Webinar, CIRAD–Agricultural Research for Development, 5 Feb 2013. http://www.fao.org/climatechange/36110-0dff1bd456fb39dbcf4d3b211af5684e2.pdf. Accessed 25 Jan 2015
Turner NC (2006) Preface: special issue on water scarcity: challenges and opportunities for crop science. Agric Water Manag 80:1–3
Twomlow S, Mugabe FT, Mwale M, Delve R, Nanja D, Carberry P, Howden M (2008) Building adaptive capacity to cope with increasing vulnerability due to climatic change in Africa: a new approach. Phys Chem Earth 33:780–787
UNDP (2008) National adaptation strategy to climate change impacts: a case study of Malawi. United Nations Development Programme, New York
Unganai L (1996) Historic and future climate change in Zimbabwe. Clim Res 6:137–145
Unganai LS (2000) Application of long range rainfall forecasts in agricultural management: a review of Africa’s experiences. In: International forum on climate prediction, agriculture and development, International Research Institute for Climate Prediction, Palisades, NY, 26–28 April 2000
Unganai LS (2009) Adaptation to climate change among agropastoral systems: case for Zimbabwe. Earth Environ Sci 6:412045
Unganai LS, Murwira A (2010) Challenges and opportunities for climate change adaptation among smallholder farmers in southeast Zimbabwe. In: 2nd International conference on climate, sustainability and development in semi-arid regions, Fortaleza, 16–20 Aug 2010
Urama KC, Ozor N (2010) Impacts of climate change on water resources in Africa: the role of adaptation. African Technology Policy Studies Network, Nairobi
Vanlauwe B (2004) Integrated soil fertility management research at TSBF: the framework, the principles and their application. In: Bationo A (ed) Managing nutrient cycles to sustain soil fertility in sub-saharan Africa. Academy Science Publishers, Nairobi, pp 25–42
Vincent K, Joubert A, Cull T (2011) Overcoming the barriers: how to ensure future food production under climate change in southern Africa. Kulima Integrated Development Solutions, Climate Systems Analysis Group, University of Cape Town, Cape Town
Vitale JD, Vognan G, Ouattara M, Traore O (2010) The commercial application of GMO crops in Africa: Burkina Faso’s decade of experience with Bt cotton. AgBioforum 13:320–332
Waddington SR, Karingwindi J (2001) Productivity and profitability of maize + groundnut rotations compared with continuous maize on smallholder farms in Zimbabwe. Exp Agric 37:83–98
Waha K, Muller C, Bondeau A, Dietrich JP, Kuluklasuriya P, Heinke J, Lotze-Campen H (2013) Adaptation to climate change through the choice of cropping cystem and sowing date in sub-saharan Africa. Glob Environ Change 23:130–143
Woittiez L (2010) Non-timber forest and rangeland products to reduce food insecurity at times of extreme climatic events: a case study of Wedza Communal Areas, Zimbabwe. MSc thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen
Woittiez LS, Rufino MC, Giller KE, Mapfumo P (2013) The use of woodland products to cope with climate variability in communal areas in Zimbabwe. Ecol Soc 18:24
World Bank (1994) Adjustment in Africa: reform, results, and the road ahead. Oxford University Press, New York, NY
World Bank (2007) Africa development indicators 2007. The World Bank, Washington, DC
World Bank (2008) World development report 2008: agriculture for development. The World Bank, Washington, DC
World Bank (2009) Minding the stock: bringing public policy to bear on livestock sector development. The World Bank, Washington, DC
World Bank (2011) Senegal: climate risk and adaptation profile. The World Bank, Washington, DC
WWF (2006) Climate change impacts on East Africa. World Wide Fund for Nature, Gland
Zimmermann R, Michael B, Shashidhara K, Kathleen F (2009) Agricultural policies in sub-saharan Africa: understanding CAADP and APRM policy processes. Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik, Bonn
Zinyengere N, Mhizha T, Mashonjowa E, Chipindu B, Geerts S, Raes D (2011) Using seasonal climate forecasts to improve maize production decision support in Zimbabwe. Agric For Meteorol 151:1792–1799
Zorom M, Barbier B, Mertz O, Servat E (2013) Diversification and adaptation strategies to climate variability: a farm typology for the sahel. Agric Syst 116:7–15
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Khan, M.A., Akhtar, M.S. (2015). Agricultural Adaptation and Climate Change Policy for Crop Production in Africa. In: Hakeem, K. (eds) Crop Production and Global Environmental Issues. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-23162-4_18
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-23162-4_18
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-23161-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-23162-4
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)