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Prenatal and Postnatal Development of the Vertebrate Blood–Gas Barrier

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The Vertebrate Blood-Gas Barrier in Health and Disease

Abstract

The vertebrate lung inaugurates as a primitive endodermal bud from the ventral aspect of the primitive foregut. The bud divides into primitive airways that form gas exchanging chambers, where a thin blood–gas barrier (BGB) is accomplished. Salient differences have been observed between the development of the compliant mammalian lung and the noncompliant avian one. In the former, formation of BGB entails conversion of columnar cells of the migrating tubes to primitive type II cells and lowering of the apical intercellular tight junctions so that the gaps between the cells enlarge. The latter cells give rise to the definitive alveolar type II (AT-II) and type I (AT-I) cells. Extrusion of the lamellar bodies thinning and stretching of the cells attains the squamous phenotype, characteristic of AT-I cells. Diminution of interstitial tissue, fusion of capillaries, and apposition of capillaries to the alveolar epithelium results in formation of a thin BGB. In birds, attenuation proceeds through cell-cutting processes, referred to as secarecytosis. Several morphoregulatory molecules including transcription factors such as Nkx2.1, GATA, HNF-3, WNT5a, signaling molecules including FGF, BMP-4, Shh and TFG-β, and extracellular matrix proteins and their receptors have been implicated. In the postnatal period, alterations in the BGB may occur during late phases of alveolarization or as repair subsequent to lung injury. Such changes are effected through rapid changes in expression of the relevant genes and consequent structural alterations. While an appreciable amount of data regarding molecular control of lung development in mammals exists, the information on avian species is scanty.

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Abbreviations

AC:

Air capillaries

AT-I:

Alveolar type I cell

AT-II:

Alveolar type II cell

BC:

Blood capillaries

bFGF:

Basic fibroblast growth factor

BGB:

Blood gas barrier

BMP-4:

Bone morphogenetic protein 4

CCSP:

Clara cell secretory protein

ECM:

Extracellular matrix

EGF:

Epithelial growth factor

EGFR:

Epithelial growth factor receptor

ELF5:

E74-like factor 5

ErbB:

Epidermal growth factor receptor

ERK:

Extracellular signal-regulated kinases

ETS:

E26 transformation-specific family

FGF:

Fibroblast growth factor

FGFRs:

Fibroblast growth factor receptors

FosB:

FBJ murine osteosarcoma viral oncogene homolog B

FOX:

Forkhead orthologs

GR:

Glucocorticoid receptor

HA:

Human influenza hemagglutinin

HIF2α:

Hypoxia inducible factor 2α

HNF-3:

Hepatocyte nuclear factor

MPK-1:

Mitogen-activated protein kinase

mRNA:

Messenger RNA

mutHIF2α:

Mutant hypoxia inducible factor 2α

NICD:

Notch intracellular domain

PDGF:

Platelet derived growth factor

RA:

Retinoic acid

RAR:

Retinoic acid receptor

Sema3A:

Semaphorin 3A

Shh:

Sonic hedge hog

SMA:

Smooth muscle actin

SP:

Surfactant proteins

TFG-β:

Transforming growth factor β

TGF-β1:

Transforming growth factor β1

TTF-1:

Thyroid transcription factor 1

VEGF:

Vascular endothelial growth factor

WNT5a:

Wingless type 5a

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Veterinary Anatomy & Physiology, University of Nairobi, Riverside Drive, Chiromo Campus, P. O. Box 30197-00100, Nairobi, Kenya

    Andrew Makanya

  2. Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 2, 3000, Bern 9, Switzerland

    Valentin Djonov

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  1. Department of Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya

    Andrew N. Makanya

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Makanya, A., Djonov, V. (2015). Prenatal and Postnatal Development of the Vertebrate Blood–Gas Barrier. In: Makanya, A. (eds) The Vertebrate Blood-Gas Barrier in Health and Disease. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18392-3_3

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